Download torrent when bough break 2016. Overall, not a bad movie, but needed something to make it seem original instead of repetitive and generic.
- Third Edition pdf of Tro's Chemistry: A Molecular Approach. Sorry, this document isn't available for viewing at this time. In the meantime, you can download the.
- Chemistry: A Molecular Approach (3rd Edition) PDF Book, By Nivaldo J. Tro, ISBN:, Genres: Chemistry Free ebook download XooBooks is the biggest community for free ebook download, audio books, tutorials download, with format pdf, epub, mobi,and more.
- This item: Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Books a la Carte Edition (3rd Edition) by Nivaldo J. Tro Loose Leaf $137.48 Only 3 left in stock (more on the way). Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
- Principles Of Chemistry A Molecular Approach 3rd Edition PDF Download e book like loopy on the Internet and on websites. The price needs to be geared toward bringing in income.
Chemistry Canadian Edition
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd i
A Molecular Approach
1/26/13 1:17 AM
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd ii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Chemistry Canadian Edition
A Molecular Approach
Nivaldo J. Tro Travis D. Fridgen Lawton E. Shaw Westmont College
Memorial University of Newfoundland
Athabasca University
With special contributions by Robert S. Boikess Rutgers University
Toronto
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd iii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Vice-President, Editorial Director: Gary Bennett Executive Editor: Cathleen Sullivan Marketing Manager: Jenna Wulff Supervising Developmental Editor: Maurice Esses Senior Developmental Editor: John Polanszky Project Manager: Rachel Thompson Production Editor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC Copyeditor: Nancy Sixsmith Proofreader: Audra Gorgiev Compositor: Jouve Photo Researcher: Eric Schrader Permissions Researcher: Sheila McDowell Laing Art Director: Julia Hall Cover and Interior Designer: Anthony Leung Cover Image: Graham Johnson/Graham Johnson Medical Media
About the Cover: The cover shows the hexagonal structure of water ice. Oxygen atoms are red. Hydrogen atoms are white, or gray. H2O molecules are bound together by hydrogen bonds with neighbouring H2O molecules, forming a three dimensional hexagonal lattice. Water molecules sublime, or change into a gaseous state, along the edge of the hexagonal structure. Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on page C-1. Original edition published by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. This edition is authorized for sale only in Canada. If you purchased this book outside the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the publisher or the author. Copyright © 2014 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Canada Inc., Permissions Department, 26 Prince Andrew Place, Don Mills, Ontario, M3C 2T8, or fax your request to 416-447-3126, or submit a request to Permissions Requests at www.pearsoncanada.ca.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [CKV] Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Tro, Nivaldo J. Chemistry : a molecular approach / Nivaldo J. Tro, Travis D. Fridgen, Lawton E. Shaw. —Canadian ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-511521-3 1. Chemistry, Physical and theoretical—Textbooks. I. Fridgen, Travis D. (Travis David), 1970– II. Shaw, Lawton, 1972– III. Title. QD453.3.T76 2014 541 C2012-901625-X
ISBN 978-0-13-511521-3
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd iv
1/26/13 1:17 AM
To Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden -Nivaldo Tro To Cailyn, Carter, Colton, and Chloe -Travis Frigden To Calvin, Nathan, Alexis, and Andrew -Lawton Shaw
About the Authors
N
ivaldo Tro is a Professor of Chemistry at
Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty
member since 1990. He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from Stanford University for work on developing and using optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces in ultrahigh vacuum. He then went on
to the University of California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution. Since coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces. He has been honored as Westmont’s outstanding teacher of the year three times and has also received the college’s outstanding researcher of the year award. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden. In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his family.
T
ravis Fridgen is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s,
Newfoundland and Labrador. He has established a CFI- and NSERC-funded laboratory and a vibrant research group with the goal of studying the energetics, reactions, and structures of solvated
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd v
1/26/13 1:17 AM
vi
About the Authors
gaseous ion complexes composed of metal ions and biologically relevant molecules such as DNA bases, amino acids, and peptides, using a combination of mass spectrometrometry, tunable infrared lasers, and computational chemistry. He graduated with a B.Sc. (Hons) in chemistry and a B.Ed. from Trent University and Queen’s University, respectively. His Ph.D. in physical chemistry is from Queen’s University, where he studied ion and neutral spectroscopy in a cryogenic matrix environment. During his postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Waterloo, he first began conducting research using mass spectrometric methods. During a brief period as an assistant professor at Wilfrid Laurier University, he initiated a collaboration to spectroscopically determine structures of gas phase protonbound dimer ions. He teaches courses in physical chemistry, but he has mostly taught first-year chemistry courses (at Trent, Waterloo, Laurier, and Memorial). He lives in Mount Pearl, Newfoundland and Labrador, with his wife, Lisa, and four children, Cailyn, Carter, Colton, and Chloe. They are all avid fans of the Ottawa Senators and enjoy busy, active lives that include outdoor activities and sports, including basketball, gymnastics, karate, kickboxing, volleyball, and snow shovelling (good old Newfoundland).
L
awton Shaw received his Ph.D. in chemistry
from the University of Calgary, in the area of photochemical reaction mechanisms of
organometallic complexes. Shortly after graduating, he joined the full-time teaching faculty at Mount Royal College in Calgary, where he developed one of the first science courses at Mount Royal delivered partially online. This work led to a serious interest
in online and distance education. In 2005, he joined the Centre for Science at Athabasca University, where he teaches and coordinates distance-delivered chemistry courses. This experience led to the book Accessible Elements: Teaching Science Online and at a Distance, which he co-edited. His research interests are split between the realms of teaching/education and environmental chemistry. Most recently, he has worked as a visiting academic at the Water Studies Centre at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, where he studied the effects of pharmaceuticals and personal care products on biofilms in urbanized streams and wetlands. He is a former president of College Chemistry Canada. He lives in St. Albert, Alberta, with his wife, Tanya, and their four children. Their family leisure time is filled with activities such as cross-country skiing, swimming, and camping.
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd vi
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Brief Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Change Atoms and Elements Molecules, Compounds, and Nomenclature Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry Gases Thermochemistry The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom Periodic Properties of the Elements
1 29 57 101 145 193 236 288
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
324
Solutions Chemical Kinetics Chemical Equilibrium Acids and Bases Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium Gibbs Energy and Thermodynamics Electrochemistry Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry Organic Chemistry I: Structures Organic Chemistry II: Reactions Biochemistry Chemistry of the Nonmetals Metals and Metallurgy Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
479 527 578 622 679 735 780 830 866 908 954 988 1022 1043
9
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
367 418
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry
A-1
Appendix II: Useful Data
A-7
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises
A-17
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
A-57
Glossary
G-1
Credits
C-1
Index
I-1
vii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd vii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Contents Preface
1
of Neutrons Varies 39 Electrons 40
xviii
Ions: Losing and Gaining
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Where Did Elements Come From?
Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Change
1
1.1 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties 1.2 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change 1.3 The Units of Measurement
3 4
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 50 Key Concepts 51 Relationships 51 Key Skills 52
11
12
18
19
50 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 52 Problems by Topic 52 Cumulative Problems 55 Challenge Problems 56 Conceptual Problems 56
3
Molecules, Compounds, and Nomenclature
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 3.2 Chemical Bonds 22
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 23 Problems by Topic 23 Cumulative Problems 26 Challenge Problems 27 Conceptual Problems 28
47
Ions and the Periodic Table 50
General Problem-Solving Strategy 19 Order-of-Magnitude Estimations 20 Problems Involving an Equation 20 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 22 Key Concepts 22 Relationships 22 Key Skills 23
23
Atoms and Elements
2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms 2.2 Early Ideas About the Building Blocks of Matter 2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
The Discovery of the Electron 34 The Discovery of the Nucleus 36 Protons, the Atomic Number, and Neutrons 38 Isotopes: When the Number
57 57 59
3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
60
Types of Chemical Formulas 60
3.4 Formulas and Names
64
Ionic Compounds 64 Molecular Compounds 67 Naming Acids 69
29 30 31 32
The Law of Conservation of Mass 32 The Law of Definite Proportions 33 The Law of Multiple Proportions 33 John Dalton and the Atomic Theory 34
2.4 Atomic Structure
52
Ionic Bonds 59 Covalent Bonds 60
3.5 Organic Compounds
2
44
The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” 44 Converting Between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms 45 Converting Between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) 45
2.7 The Periodic Table of the Elements
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Integrity in Data 1.5 Solving Chemical Problems
42
Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules 43
2.6 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them
Counting Significant Figures 13 Exact Numbers 14 Significant Figures in Calculations 15 Rules for Calculations 15 Rules for Rounding 16 Precision and Accuracy 17 Gathering
2.5 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
2
The Standard Units 4 The Metre: A Measure of Length 4 The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass 5 The Second: A Measure of Time 5 The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature 5 SI Prefixes 6 Conversions Involving the SI Prefixes 7 Derived Units 8
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Bone Density 1.4 The Reliability of a Measurement
41
70
Naming Hydrocarbons 72 Cyclic Hydrocarbons 76 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 77 Functionalized Hydrocarbons 78
3.6 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds
81
Molar Mass of a Compound 81 Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing 81
3.7 Composition of Compounds
83
Conversion Factors in Chemical Formulas 84
34
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Drug Tablets 3.8 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
86
86
Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds 88 Combustion Analysis 89
viii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd viii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
ix
CO N T E N T S
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 91 Key Concepts 92 Relationships 92 Key Skills 93
91 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 93 Problems by Topic 94 Cumulative Problems 99 Challenge Problems 100 Conceptual Problems 100
4
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 150 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 152 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) 155
93
5.4 The Ideal Gas Law 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
101 102
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
4.3 Solutions and Solubility
105
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
4.4 Precipitation Reactions 4.5 Acid–Base Reactions
109 111
Acid–Base Reactions Evolving a Gas 114
4.6 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases 5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
Oxidation States 116 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States 117 Identifying Redox Reactions 118 120
121
Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 121 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 121
123
Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses 124 Conceptual Plan 125
128
Solution Concentration 128
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Blended Ethanol Gasoline
129
Solution 135
EXERCISES Review Questions 137 Problems by Topic 137 Cumulative Problems 141 Challenge Problems 143 Conceptual Problems 143
137
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd ix
6
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Pressure in Outer Space
181
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 183 Key Concepts 183 Key Equations and Relationships 184 Key Skills 184
183
EXERCISES Review Questions 185 Problems by Topic 186 Cumulative Problems 189 Challenge Problems 191 Conceptual Problems 192
185
Thermochemistry
6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions
193 193 194
6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Perpetual Motion
196
Machines Internal Energy 197
197
6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work
202
Heat 202 Work: Pressure–Volume Work 206
145 145 146
Pressure Units 147 The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory 148
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Blood Pressure 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law
177
Units of Energy 196
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 135 Key Concepts 135 Key Equations and Relationships 136 Key Skills 136
Gases
176
The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles 178 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 179 Van der Waals Equation 180 Real Gases 180
115
4.9 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry
170
Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law 172 Temperature and Molecular Velocities 173
Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions 106 The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 107
4.8 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
167
Molar Volume and Stoichiometry 169
How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 104
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bleached Blonde 4.7 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Is Produced?
161
Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures 163 Collecting Gases over Water 165
101
4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine 4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
5
158
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure 158 Density of a Gas 159 Molar Mass of a Gas 160
5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
Using Molarity in Calculations 131 Stoichiometry 133
156
149
150
6.5 Measuring Δ rU for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
208 210
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View 212 Stoichiometry Involving ΔrH: Thermochemical Equations 213
6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring Δ r H 6.8 Relationships Involving Δ r H
214 216
1/26/13 1:17 AM
x
CO NT ENTS
6.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation
218
Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes 218 Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 220
6.10 Energy Use and the Environment
224
Implications of Dependence on Fossil Fuels 224 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 226 Key Concepts 227 Relationships 227 Key Skills 228
226
The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
a Bar Code for Atoms
236 237 237
242
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Potassium Iodide in Radiation Emergencies The Noble Gases (Group 18) 316
261
EXERCISES Review Questions 318 Problems by Topic 319 Cumulative Problems 321 Challenge Problems 322 Conceptual Problems 323
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 280 Key Concepts 281 Key Equations and Relationships 281 Key Skills 282
280
EXERCISES Review Questions 282 Problems by Topic 283 Cumulative Problems 285 Challenge Problems 286 Conceptual Problems 287
282
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd x
316
259
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 270 Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms 271 Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms 275 Electron Configurations for Transition Metals 278 Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions 278
313
The Alkali Metals (Group 1) 313 The Halogens (Group 17) 314
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 317 Key Concepts 317 Relationships 318 Key Skills 318
269
310
Metallic Character 311
8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behaviour: The Alkali Metals, Halogens, and Noble Gases
Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom 259
7.7 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
303 306
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
252
s Orbitals (l = 0) 262 p Orbitals (l = 1) 264 d Orbitals (l = 2) 265 f Orbitals (l = 3) 265 The Phase of Orbitals 266 The Hydrogen-Like Wave Functions 267
296
Trends in First Ionization Energy 306 Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy 308 Ionization Energies of Transition Metals 309 Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies 309 Electron Affinity 311
248
295
8.6 Ionic Radii 8.7 Ionization Energy
The de Broglie Wavelength 255 The Uncertainty Principle 256 Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps 258
7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
291
Effective Nuclear Charge 298 Slater’s Rules 300 Atomic Radii of d-block Elements 301
7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy 254
7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
289 289
8.4 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 8.5 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge
The Wave Nature of Light 238 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 240 Interference and Diffraction 241
7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atomic Spectroscopy,
288
Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table 292 Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table 293 The d-block and f-block Elements 294
229
7.1 Quantum Mechanics: The Theory That Explains the Behaviour of the Absolutely Small 7.2 The Nature of Light
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Radiation Treatment for Cancer The Particle Nature of Light 244
Periodic Properties of the Elements
8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 8.3 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 229 Problems by Topic 229 Cumulative Problems 233 Challenge Problems 234 Conceptual Problems 235
7
8
9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
317 Key Equations and
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
318
324
Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs Types of Chemical Bonds Representing Valance Electrons with Dots Ionic Bonding and Lattice Energies
325 325 327 328
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer 328 Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story 329 The Born– Haber Cycle 329 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size 331 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge 331 Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality 332
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ionic Compounds in Medicine
9.5 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction to Lewis Structures of Molecules
334
334
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xi
CO N T E N T S
Drawing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 334 Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality 337 Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 338
9.6 Bond Energies, Bond Lengths, and Bond Vibrations
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Bond Energy 338 Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions 340 Bond Lengths 342 Bond Vibrations 343
9.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity 345 Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character 346 Resonance 349
349
Formal Charge 351
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Drawing Lewis Structures for Odd-Electron Species and Expanded Octets Odd-Electron Species 354
354
Incomplete Octets 354
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner
355
9.10 Lewis Structures for Hypercoordinate Compounds 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Lewis
356 358
Structure of Ozone
359
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 360 Key Concepts 360 Relationships 361 Key Skills 361
360 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 362 Problems by Topic 362 Cumulative Problems 364 Challenge Problems 365 Conceptual Problems 366
10
362
368 368
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry 369 Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry 369 Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry 370 Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry 317 Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry 371
10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xi
397
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) 398 Period 2 Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 402 Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 407 Polyatomic Molecules 409 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 410 Key Concepts 410 Relationships 411 Key Skills 411
410 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 411 Problems by Topic 412 Cumulative Problems 414 Challenge Problems 416 Conceptual Problems 417
11
Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
11.1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
411
418 419 419
Changes Between States 421
Ion-Induced Dipole Forces 423 Dispersion Force 423 Dipole–Dipole Force 425 Hydrogen Bonding 428 Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces 430 Ion–Dipole Force 431
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
432
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
433
Surface Tension 433 Viscosity 435
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Viscosity and Motor Oil 11.5 Vaporization and Vapour Pressure
372
435
436
The Process of Vaporization 436 The Energetics of Vaporization 438 Vapour Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium 439 The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter 445
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion Sublimation 446 Fusion 447 Melting and Freezing 447
377
Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules 378
10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: How Soap Works
10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
Capillary Action 436
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 372 Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 374 Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 375
10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries
393
sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds 393 Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes 395
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together 422
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 367
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes
sp2 Hybridization and
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Chemistry of Vision 344
9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge
sp3 Hybridization 387 Double Bonds 389
338
384 386
380 383
446 Energetics of
11.7 Heating Curve for Water 11.8 Phase Diagrams
448 450
The Major Features of a Phase Diagram 450 Navigation Within a Phase Diagram 451 The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances 452
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xii
CO NT ENTS
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT:
453
Water Pollution
454
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography 11.11 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures
455 457
Closest-Packed Structures 460
11.12 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types Molecular Solids 463 Atomic Solids 465
463
Ionic Solids 463
11.13 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory
467
Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors 468 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 468 Key Concepts 469 Relationships 470 Key Skills 470
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 518 Key Concepts 518 Relationships 519 Key Skills 520
515 518 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 520 Problems by Topic 521 Cumulative Problems 524 Challenge Problems 525 Conceptual Problems 526
13
520
Chemical Kinetics
527
13.1 Catching Lizards 13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
527 528
468 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 470 Problems by Topic 471 Cumulative Problems 475 Challenge Problems 477 Conceptual Problems 478
12
12.8 Colloids
Measuring Reaction Rates 532
13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 470
533
Determining the Order of a Reaction 534 Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants 536
13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time
537
Half-Life, Lifetime, and Decay Time 542
Solutions
12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility
479
13.6 Reaction Mechanisms 485
486 489
494
of Chymotrypsin in Digestion
564 565
494
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 565 Key Concepts 565 Relationships 566 Key Skills 566
498
501
Vapour Pressure Lowering 501 Vapour Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute 504 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation 507
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Antifreeze in Frogs
Strong Electrolytes and Vapour Pressure 513 Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions 514
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xii
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 567 Problems by Topic 567 Cumulative Problems 573 Challenge Problems 576 Conceptual Problems 577
14
Chemical Equilibrium
567
578
14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium 14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium 14.3 The Expression for the Equilibrium Constant 510
Osmotic Pressure 510
12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
558
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role
Molarity 495 Molality 496 Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume 496 Mole Fraction and Mole Percent 498
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapour Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure
13.7 Catalysis Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis 559 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 561
The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids 490 Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water 491
12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Lake Nyos
552
Rate Laws for Elementary Steps 553 Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws 553 The Steady-State Approximation 555
Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration 488
12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
545
Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy 548 The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor 550
479 481
Nature’s Tendency Toward Mixing: Entropy 481 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 482
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bisphenol A 12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation
13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
512
579 580 582
Relating Kp and Kc 582 The Unitless Thermodynamic Equilibrium Constant 584 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids 585
14.4 The Equilibrium Constant (K )
587
Units of Equilibrium Constants 587 The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant 587
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xiii
CO N T E N T S
Relationships Between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation 588
15.9 Polyprotic Acids
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Life and Equilibrium 14.5 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Quantities 14.6 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change 14.7 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
589
591 594 596
Finding Partial Pressures or Concentrations at Equilibrium Amounts When We Know the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Amounts of the Reactants and Products 596 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Know the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures 597 Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems 601
14.8 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
EXERCISES Review Questions 614 Problems by Topic 615 Cumulative Problems 619 Challenge Problems 620 Conceptual Problems 621
614
622 622 623 625
The Arrhenius Definition 625 The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 626
628
631 633
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity 635 pOH and Other p Scales 636
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ulcers 15.7 Finding 3H3O + 4, 3OH - 4, and pH of Acid or Base Solutions
637
638
648
Cations as Weak Acids 653 Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 654
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xiii
16
672
Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
679
16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze 16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
680 681
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution 682 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation 683 Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution 686 Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid 689
16.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
691
Relative Amounts of Acid and Base 691 Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base 691 Buffer Range 692 Human Blood Buffer Capacity 694
693
694
The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 694 The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 699 The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 704 The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid 704 Indicators: pH-Dependent Colours 705
16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant
708
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Hard Water
649
710
Ksp and Relative Solubility 711 The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 711 The Effect of an Uncommon Ion on Solubility (Salt Effect) 713 The Effect of pH on Solubility 713
16.6 Precipitation
Anions as Weak Bases 649
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: What’s in My Antacid?
669 Key Equations and
Ksp and Molar Solubility 708
Strong Acids 638 Weak Acids 638 Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid 643 Mixtures of Acids 644 Finding the [OH-] and pH of Basic Solutions 646
15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 669 Key Concepts 669 Relationships 670 Key Skills 671
16.4 Titrations and pH Curves
Strong Bases 631 Weak Bases 631
15.6 Autoionization of Water and pH
666
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Buffer Effectiveness in
Strong Acids 628 Weak Acids 629 The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka) 630
15.5 Base Solutions
662
EXERCISES Review Questions 672 Problems by Topic 672 Cumulative Problems 675 Challenge Problems 677 Conceptual Problems 678 612
15.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)
15.11 Strengths of Acids and Bases and Molecular Structure
Effects of Acid Rain 667 Acid Rain Legislation 668
605
15.1 Heartburn 15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 15.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases
661
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids 661 Cations That Act as Lewis Acids 662
15.12 Acid Rain
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 612 Key Concepts 612 Key Equations and Relationships 613 Key Skills 613
Acids and Bases
15.10 Lewis Acids and Bases
Binary Acids 663 Electron Affinity of Y 663 Bond Strength 663 The Combined Effect of Electron Affinity and Bond Strength 664 Oxyacids 664 Amine Bases 666
The Effect of Changing the Amount of Reactant or Product on Equilibrium 605 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium 608 The Effect of Changing the Pressure by Adding an Inert Gas 609 The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium 609
15
656
Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions 657 Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution 659
714
Selective Precipitation 716
16.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis
717
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xiv
CO NT ENTS
Group A: Insoluble Chlorides 719 Group B: AcidInsoluble Sulphides 719 Group C: Base-Insoluble Sulphides and Hydroxides 719 Group D: Insoluble Phosphates 719 Group E: Alkali Metals and NH4+ 719
16.8 Complex–Ion Equilibria
EXERCISES Review Questions 773 Problems by Topic 773 Cumulative Problems 776 Challenge Problems 778 Conceptual Problems 779
720
18
The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility 722 The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides 723 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 724 Key Concepts 725 Relationships 725 Key Skills 725
724 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 726 Problems by Topic 727 Cumulative Problems 732 Challenge Problems 733 Conceptual Problems 733
17
Gibbs Energy and Thermodynamics
726
780
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid 18.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
781 781 784
18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
788
Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation– Reduction Reaction 793 Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid 796
735 736 737
Entropy 739 The Entropy Change Associated with a Change in State 743
17.3 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings
748 748
The Effect of Δ r H, Δ r S, and T on Spontaneity 750
17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ rS ∘
752
Standard Molar Entropies (S ∘ ) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 753
17.7 Gibbs Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ rG ∘
757
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Making a
17.8 Gibbs Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship Between Δ rG ∘ and Δ rG
760
763
The Gibbs Energy Change of a Reaction Under Nonstandard Conditions 764 ∘
17.9 Gibbs Energy and Equilibrium: Relating Δ rG to the Equilibrium Constant (K )
766
The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant 768 771 Key Equations and
18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration
800
Cells in Human Nerve Cells
806
18.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
807
Dry-Cell Batteries 807 Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 808 Other Rechargeable Batteries 808 Fuel Cells 810
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Lithium Battery 811 18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity 811 Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 813 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 817
18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
Calculating Gibbs Energy Changes with Δ r G ∘ = Δ r H ∘ - T Δ r S ∘ 757 Calculating Δ rG ∘ with Tabulated Values of Gibbs Energies of Formation 759 Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous Calculating Δ rG ∘ for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Gibbs Energy for Each of the Steps 761 What Is Gibbs Energy? 762
796
The Relationship Between Δ rG° and E°cell 797 5 and K 799 The Relationship Between E cell Concentration Cells 804
744
17.4 Entropy Changes for Phase Transitions 17.5 Gibbs Energy
18.5 Cell Potential, Gibbs Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Concentration
The Temperature Dependence of ΔSsurr 745 Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 746
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xiv
Electrochemistry
Electrochemical Cell Notation 787
17.1 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 17.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 771 Key Concepts 771 Relationships 772 Key Skills 772
773
819
Preventing Corrosion 821 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 821 Key Concepts 821 Relationships 822 Key Skills 823
821 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 823 Problems by Topic 824 Cumulative Problems 827 Challenge Problems 829 Conceptual Problems 829
19
Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
19.1 Medical Isotopes 19.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 19.3 Types of Radioactivity
823
830 830 831 832
Alpha (a) Decay 833 Beta (b) Decay 834 Gamma (g) Ray Emission 835 Positron Emission 835 Electron Capture 835
19.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
837
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xv
CO N T E N T S
Magic Numbers 839
Radioactive Decay Series 839
19.5 Detecting Radioactivity 19.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
840 841
The Integrated Rate Law 842
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Uranium Isotopes and the CANDU Reactor 843 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts 844 Uranium/Lead Dating 846
19.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
847
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity 849
19.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy 19.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 19.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements 19.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life
853 854 856
Acute Radiation Damage 856 Increased Cancer Risk 856 Genetic Defects 856 Measuring Radiation Exposure 856
19.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
858
Diagnosis in Medicine 858 Radiotherapy in Medicine 859 Other Applications 859
Organic Chemistry I: Structures
899
EXERCISES Review Questions 901 Problems by Topic 902 Cumulative Problems 904 Challenge Problems 905 Conceptual Problems 906
901
21
Organic Chemistry II: Reactions
908
21.1 Discovering New Drugs 21.2 Organic Acids and Bases
909 909
The Range of Organic Acidities 909 Inductive Effects: Withdrawal of Electron Density 911 Resonance Effects: Charge Delocalization in the Conjugate Base 912 Acidic Hydrogen Atoms Bonded to Carbon 913 Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry 913 Acid and Base Reagents 914
21.3 Oxidation and Reduction
862
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Hydrogen and the Oil Sands 21.4 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions at Saturated Carbon
916
Redox Reactions 917
866
Perceived Difference Between Organic and Inorganic
20.3 Hydrocarbons
867 867
919
920
20.4 Functional Groups
868
869
926
The E1 Mechanism 927 The E2 Mechanism 928 Elimination Versus Substitution 928
21.6 Electrophilic Additions to Alkenes
928
Other Addition
21.7 Nucleophilic Additions to Aldehydes and Ketones
930
Addition of Alcohols 930 The Grignard Reaction 931
21.8 Nucleophilic Substitutions of Acyl Compounds 21.9 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions 21.10 Polymerization 875
Halides 876 Amines 876 Alcohols 877 Ethers 878 Carbonyls–Aldehydes and Ketones 878 The Carboxylic Acid Family 879
20.5 Constitutional Isomerism 20.6 Stereoisomerism I: Conformational Isomerism
21.5 Elimination Reactions
Hydrohalogenation 928 Reactions 929
Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures 869 Types of Hydrocarbons 872 Alkanes 872 Alkenes 873 Alkynes 873 Conjugated Alkenes and Aromatics 874
933 937 938
Step-Growth Polymers 939 Addition Polymers 939
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Kevlar
881 882
Conformational Isomerism: Rotation About Single Bonds 882 Ring Conformations of Cycloalkanes 884
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xv
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 899 Key Concepts 899 Key Equations and Relationships 900 Types of Isomerism 901 Key Skills 901
The SN1 Mechanism 920 The SN2 Mechanism 922 Factors Affecting Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 923
20.1 Fragrances and Odours 20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Vitalism and the
20.7 Stereoisomerism II: Configurational Isomerism
893
893
Using the Molecular Formula: The Index of Hydrogen Deficiency 893 Spectroscopic Methods for Structure Determination 895
860 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 862 Problems by Topic 862 Cumulative Problems 864 Challenge Problems 865 Conceptual Problems 865
20
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Anesthetics and Alcohol 20.8 Structure Determination
850
Mass Defect 851
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 860 Key Concepts 860 Relationships 861 Key Skills 861
Cis–Trans Isomerism in Alkenes 886 Enantiomers: Chirality 889 Absolute Configurations 891
885
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 941 Key Concepts 942 Relationships 943 Key Skills 944
940 941 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 944 Problems by Topic 945 Cumulative Problems 951 Challenge Problems 952 Conceptual Problems 953
944
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xvi
CO NT ENTS
22
Biochemistry
954
22.1 Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin 22.2 Lipids Fatty Acids 955 Lipids 958
Fats and Oils 957
954 955
960
22.4 Proteins and Amino Acids
965
970
EXERCISES 1018 Review Questions 1018 Problems by Topic 1018 Cumulative Problems 1020 Challenge Problems 1021 Conceptual Problems 1021
973
The Basic Structure of Nucleic Acids 973 The Genetic Code 975
22.7 DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis
977
DNA Replication and the Double Helix 977 Protein Synthesis 978
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Human Genome Project
979
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 980 Key Concepts 980
980 Key Skills 981
EXERCISES Review Questions 981 Problems by Topic 982 Cumulative Problems 985 Challenge Problems 986 Conceptual Problems 987
Chemistry of the Nonmetals
23.1 Insulated Nanowires 23.2 The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties
981
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xvi
Carbon Oxides 1001
Metals and Metallurgy
24.1 Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity 24.2 The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals 24.3 Metallurgical Processes
1022 1023 1023 1025
Separation 1025 Pyrometallurgy 1026 Hydrometallurgy 1026 Electrometallurgy 1027 Powder Metallurgy 1028
24.4 Metal Structures and Alloys
1028
989 989
990
994
997
1034
Titanium 1034 Chromium 1035 Manganese 1036 Cobalt 1036 Copper 1037 Nickel 1038 Zinc 1038
988
Elemental Boron 994 Boron–Halogen Compounds: Trihalides 995 Boron–Oxygen Compounds 996 Boron–Hydrogen Compounds: Boranes 996
23.5 Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates
Key Skills 1018
24.5 Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals
Quartz and Glass 990 Aluminosilicates 991 Individual Silicate Units, Silicate Chains, and Silicate Sheets 991
23.4 Boron and Its Remarkable Structures
24
1017
Alloys 1029 Substitutional Alloys 1029 Alloys with Limited Solubility 1031 Interstitial Alloys 1032
Atomic Size and Types of Bonds 989
23.3 Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth’s Crust
1014
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 1017 Key Concepts 1017
Secondary Structure 971 Tertiary Structure 971 Quaternary Structure 972
22.6 Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins
23.9 Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity
969
Primary Structure 969
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Essential Amino Acids
1011
Elemental Sulphur 1011 Hydrogen Sulphide and Metal Sulphides 1012 Sulphur Dioxide 1013 Sulphuric Acid 1013
Elemental Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid 1015 Elemental Chlorine 1016 Halogen Oxides 1016
Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins 965 Peptide Bonding Between Amino Acids 967
22.5 Protein Structure
1009
23.8 Sulphur: A Dangerous but Useful Element 959
Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and Disaccharides 961 Complex Carbohydrates 963
Carbon 997 Carbides 1000 Carbonates 1001
23.7 Oxygen Elemental Oxygen 1009 Uses for Oxygen 1010 Oxides 1010 Ozone 1010
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Dietary Fat: The 22.3 Carbohydrates
1002
Elemental Nitrogen and Phosphorus 1002 Nitrogen Compounds 1004 Phosphorus Compounds 1007
Other
Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
23
23.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 1039 Key Terms 1039 Key Concepts 1039 Key Equations and Relationships 1039 Key Skills 1039 EXERCISES 1040 Review Questions 1040 Problems by Topic 1040 Cumulative Problems 1041 Challenge Problems 1042 Conceptual Problems 1042
25
Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
25.1 The Colours of Rubies and Emeralds 25.2 Electron Configurations of Transition Metals Electron Configurations 1045 States 1045
25.3 Coordination Compounds
1043 1044 1044
Oxidation
1046
1/26/13 1:17 AM
CO N T E N T S
Naming Coordination Compounds 1049
25.4 Structure and Isomerization Structural Isomerism 1051
B Logarithms C Quadratic Equations D Graphs
1051 Stereoisomerism 1051
25.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
1055
Ligand Field Theory 1055 Octahedral Complexes 1055 The Colour of Complex Ions and Ligand Field Strength 1056 Magnetic Properties 1058 Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes 1059
25.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds
1060
Chelating Agents 1060 Chemical Analysis 1060 Colouring Agents 1060 Biomolecules 1061
Appendix II: Useful Data A Atomic Colours B Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25°C C Aqueous Equilibrium Constants D Standard Electrode Potentials at 25°C E Vapour Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
xvii A-3 A-4 A-5 A-7 A-7 A-7 A-12 A-15 A-15
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 1063 Key Terms 1063 Key Concepts 1063 Key Equations and Relationships 1064 Key Skills 1064
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises
A-17
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
A-57
EXERCISES 1064 Review Questions 1064 Problems by Topic 1065 Cumulative Problems 1066 Challenge Problems 1067 Conceptual Problems 1067
Glossary
G-1
Credits
C-1
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A Scientific Notation
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xvii
Index
I-1
A-1 A-1
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Preface To the Student As you begin this course, think about your reasons for enrolling in it. Why are you taking general chemistry? Why are you pursuing a university or college education at all? If you are like most students taking general chemistry, part of your answer is probably that this course is required for your major or you are pursuing your education so that you can get a job some day. Although these are both good reasons, we think there is a better one. The primary reason for an education is to prepare you to live a good life. You should understand chemistry—not for what it can get you—but for what it can do for you. Understanding chemistry is an important source of happiness and fulfillment. Understanding chemistry helps you to live life to its fullest for two basic reasons. The first is intrinsic: through an understanding of chemistry, you gain a powerful appreciation for just how rich and extraordinary the world really is. For example, one of the most important ideas in science is that the behaviour of matter is determined by the properties of molecules and atoms. With this knowledge, we have been able to study the substances that compose the world around us and explain their behaviour by reference to particles so small that they can hardly be imagined. If you have never realized the remarkable sensitivity of the world we can see to the world we cannot, you have missed out on a fundamental truth about our universe. The second reason is extrinsic: understanding chemistry makes you a more informed citizen—it allows you to engage with many of the issues of our day. Scientific literacy helps you understand and discuss in a meaningful way important issues from the development of the oil sands in Alberta (Chapter 6) to how the production of pharmaceuticals and personal care products affects our environment and our bodies (Chapter 12). In other words, understanding chemistry makes you a deeper and richer person and makes your country and the world a better place to live. These reasons have been the foundation of education from the very beginnings of civilization. So this is why we think you should take this course and why we wish you the best as you embark on the journey to understand the world around you at the molecular level. The rewards are well worth the effort.
The Strengths of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is first and foremost a student-oriented book. The main goal of the book is to motivate students and get them to achieve at the highest possible level. As we all know, many students take general chemistry because it is a requirement; they do not see the connection between chemistry and their lives or their intended careers. Chemistry: A Molecular Approach strives to make those connections consistently and effectively. Unlike other books, which often teach chemistry as something that happens only in the laboratory or in industry, this book teaches chemistry in the context
of relevance. It shows students why chemistry is important to them, to their future careers, and to their world. Second, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a pedagogically driven book. In seeking to develop problem-solving skills, a consistent approach is applied (Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check), usually in a two- or three-column format. In the twocolumn format, the left column shows the student how to analyze the problem and devise a solution strategy. It also lists the steps of the solution and explains the rationale for each one, while the right column shows the implementation of each step. In the three-column format, the left column outlines the general procedure for solving an important category of problems that is then applied to two side-by-side examples. This strategy allows students to see both the general pattern and the slightly different ways in which the procedure may be applied in differing contexts. The aim is to help students understand both the concept of the problem (through the formulation of an explicit conceptual plan for each problem) and the solution to the problem. Third, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a visual book. Wherever possible, images are used to deepen the student’s insight into chemistry. In developing chemical principles, multipart images help to show the connection between everyday processes visible to the unaided eye and what atoms and molecules are actually doing. Many of these images have three parts: macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic. This combination helps students to see the relationships between the formulas they write down on paper (symbolic), the world they see around them (macroscopic), and the atoms and molecules that compose that world (molecular). In addition, most figures are designed to teach rather than just to illustrate. They include annotations and labels intended to help the student grasp the most important processes and the principles that underlie them. The resulting images are rich with information but also uncommonly clear and quickly understood. Fourth, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a “big picture” book. At the beginning of each chapter, a short paragraph helps students to see the key relationships between the different topics they are learning. A focused and concise narrative helps make the basic ideas of every chapter clear to the student. Interim summaries are provided at selected spots in the narrative, making it easier to grasp (and review) the main points of important discussions. And to make sure that students never lose sight of the forest for the trees, each chapter includes several Conceptual Connections, which ask them to think about concepts and solve problems without doing any math. The idea is for students to learn the concepts, not just plug numbers into equations to churn out the right answer. Finally, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a book that delivers the depth of coverage faculty want. We do not have to cut corners and water down the material in order to get our students interested. We simply have to meet them where they are, challenge them to the highest level of achievement, and then support them with enough pedagogy to allow them to succeed.
The Canadian Edition Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, by Nivaldo J. Tro, is widely used in general chemistry courses at colleges and universities across North America. So, why do we need a Canadian
xviii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xviii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
P RE FACE
edition? The short answer is that general chemistry courses in Canada are different from those in the United States. First-year chemistry curricula in Canada are generally at a higher level than what is seen south of the border. There is a need for a strong chemistry textbook that serves Canadian general chemistry courses. The Canadian adaptation of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach drew very heavily on feedback from professors and instructors across Canada. As the Canadian authors, we took the reviews and consultations very seriously and did our best to adapt Tro’s textbook accordingly. In general terms, the adaptation involved making the following changes. International Conventions on Units, Symbols, and Nomenclature The field of chemistry is communicated according to conventions that are determined by the broader international chemistry community, through the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPAC continually releases recommendations on chemical nomenclature, definitions, symbols, and units. IUPAC recommendations are not static; they may evolve over time as new information comes to light. Although many textbooks state that they follow the recommendations of the IUPAC, you will find that the Canadian edition of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach scrupulously follows IUPAC recommendations for chemical names and symbols, nomenclature, and conventions for symbols and units in measurements. In the case of chemical nomenclature, there are a number of non-IUPAC chemical names that are so common that we have to include them along with the IUPAC recommended name. S.I. units of measurement are used exclusively. Imperial units such as the gallon, pound, and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature have not been used in modern science for over a generation. IUPAC recommended defining standard pressure as 1 bar (or 100 kPa) back in 1982. This is the standard that has been adopted by chemists worldwide and is almost exclusive in second-year physical chemistry texts. Only in first-year textbooks does the atmosphere still linger as standard pressure. In this text, standard pressure is the IUPAC-recommended bar. Students will see pressure in various units, but we make little use of the atmosphere. When dealing with ideal gases, the most common value of R is 0.08314 L bar mol–1 K–1. In thermodynamics, we have adopted the recommended notation for enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs energy changes, placing subscripts for changes after the delta sign rather than after H, S, or G. For example, the standard reaction enthalpy is expressed 5 . This is a subtle change that matters. as Δ r H 5 rather than ΔH rxn The type of change ( Δ ) is marked on the Δ symbol (reaction, Δ r; formation, Δ f; and so on), rather than the type of thermodynamic quantity. We understand that this notation is not used everywhere. However, we believe that students should use standard notation throughout their education. Students who continue in chemistry or other sciences will eventually come across the standard notation in physical chemistry textbooks and in places like the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and the NIST Chemistry Webbook (http://webbook.nist.gov/). Furthermore, thermodynamic quantities like Δ r H 5 are always molar quantities and have the units kJ mol–1, as recommended by IUPAC. Exclusive use of IUPAC-recommended units keeps students from getting into unit troubles when doing thermodynamic calculations.
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xix
xix
Explicitly, we have provided the distinctions and connections between the unitless thermodynamic equilibrium constant, Keq or simply K, and the phenomenological equilibrium constants, Kc and KP , which can have units in terms of concentration and pressure, respectively, again in accordance with IUPAC recommendations. This is done in the most basic of terms, assuming that gases and solutions are ideal so that their partial pressures and concentrations are assumed to be numerically equivalent to their activities, setting up for a more rigorous treatment in second year analytical and physical chemistry courses. Following recommendations set out by the IUPAC ensures that we speak a common language—and teach a common language. Otherwise, students who go on in chemistry have to convert from the language learned in first year as soon as the very next year, when they take their first physical chemistry course. Current Theories We have updated the text so that the most current, consensus scientific view is described. This is most notable in the case of bonding theory and the so-called expanded octet. In this case, recent evidence shows that the d orbitals have a negligible contribution to bonding, which means that full sp3d and sp3d2 hybridizations should no longer be included in bonding theories, even though this idea continues to appear in general chemistry textbooks. This Canadian edition reflects the most current understanding of chemical phenomenon, at the first-year level. Organic Chemistry The coverage of organic chemistry has been expanded to two chapters, reflecting the curricula in many Canadian universities, which provide additional organic chemistry coverage in first-year chemistry. The first organic chemistry chapter covers structure and bonding, stereochemistry, and structure determination. The second chapter covers organic reactivity, and it is organized according to reaction mechanisms. Canadian Context Naturally, a Canadian edition will include Canadian examples. In some places, the Canadian content is fun, like the hockey goalie’s “Quantum mechanical five hole” in Chapter 7. In other places, Canadian chemistry examples are serious and important, like the chemistry of the oil sands. Wherever Canadian content appears in this edition, it is there to promote student engagement. This book is meant for the Canadian student. End-of-Chapter Problems One of the first things that professors consider when choosing a chemistry textbook is the quality of end-of-chapter problems. This is because, to learn chemistry, students need to work through meaningful exercises and problems. Tro’s Chemistry: A Molecular Approach has extensive, high-quality problems. In the Canadian edition, some of the more elementary problems have been replaced with more difficult ones, and a total of 120 more end-of-chapter questions have been added. First-year chemistry courses are perhaps the most important courses in chemistry programs, because they lay the foundation for all higher level courses. First-year courses introduce students to the language and discipline of chemistry, and some concepts are not touched on again in the entire undergraduate curriculum. Indeed, many Ph.D. comprehensive questions fall back to ideas learned in first year. This book was prepared with
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xx
PREFACE
the full undergraduate curriculum in mind. If you are a student, we hope that the Canadian edition of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach helps you succeed in chemistry. We encourage you to make use of all of the features in this book that are designed to help you learn. If you are a professor, it is our hope that this textbook provides you with the strong content you need to teach first-year chemistry in a way that is true to our discipline.
Supplements For the Instructor MasteringChemistry® is the best adaptive-learning online homework and tutorial system. Instructors can create online assignments for their students by choosing from a wide range of items, including end-of-chapter problems and researchenhanced tutorials. Assignments are automatically graded with up-to-date diagnostic information, helping instructors pinpoint where students struggle either individually or as a class as a whole. Instructor resources are password protected and available for download from the Pearson online catalogue at www. pearsoncanada.ca/. For your convenience, many of these resources are also available on the Instructor’s Resource DVD-ROM (ISBN 9780133060430). Instructor’s Solutions Manual This manual contains step-bystep solutions to all complete, end-of-chapter exercises. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual to accompany the Canadian edition has been extensively revised and checked for accuracy. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available on the IRDVD and can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Instructor’s Resource Manual Organized by chapter, this useful guide includes objectives, lecture outlines, and references to figures and solved problems, as well as teaching tips. The Instructor’s Resource Manual can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. TestGen and Test Item File For your convenience, our testbank is available in two formats. TestGen is a computerized testbank containing a broad variety of multiple-choice, short answer, and more complex problem questions. Questions can be searched and identified by question type or level of difficulty. Each question has been checked for accuracy and is available in the latest version of TestGen software. This software package allows instructors to custom design, save, and generate classroom tests. The test program permits instructors to edit, add, or delete questions from the testbank; edit existing graphics and create new ones; analyze test results; and organize a database of tests and student results. This software allows for greater flexibility and ease of use. It provides many options for organizing and displaying tests, along with search and sort features. The same questions can also be found in a Test Item File available in Word format. Both of these versions are included on the IRDVD. The TestGen testbank can also be downloaded from the online catalogue. PowerPoint® Presentations PowerPoint® lecture slides provide an outline to use in a lecture setting, presenting definitions,
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xx
key concepts, and figures from the textbook. The textbook’s worked examples and a selection of practice problems are also provided in PowerPoint® format. These PowerPoint® slides can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Questions for Classroom Response Systems Another set of PowerPoint® slides provide sample exercises and questions to be used with Classroom Response Systems. These questions can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Image Libraries All images, figures, and tables in the textbook are provided in PowerPoint® format. The images, figures, and tables are also available in a separate image library in jpeg or gif format. The Image Libraries are available on the IRDVD or through the online catalogue. CourseSmart for Instructors CourseSmart goes beyond traditional expectations, providing instant, online access to the textbooks and course materials you need at a lower cost for students. And even as students save money, you can save time and hassle with a digital eTextbook that allows you to search for the most relevant content at the very moment you need it. Whether it’s evaluating textbooks or creating lecture notes to help students with difficult concepts, CourseSmart can make life a little easier. See how when you visit www.coursesmart.com/instructors. Technology Specialists Pearson’s Technology Specialists work with faculty and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources by assisting in the integration of a variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your local Pearson Education sales representative can provide you with more details on this service program.
For the Student MasteringChemistry® provides you with two learning systems: an extensive self-study area with an interactive eBook and the most widely used chemistry homework and tutorial system (if your instructor chooses to make online assignments part of your course). Pearson eText The integration of Pearson eText within MasteringChemistry® gives students with new books easy access to the electronic text when they are logged into MasteringChemistry®. Pearson eText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering powerful new functionality for students and instructors. Users can create notes, highlight text in different colours, create bookmarks, zoom, view in single-page or twopage format, and more. Selected Solutions Manual This manual for students contains complete, step-by-step solutions to selected odd-numbered endof-chapter problems. The Selected Solutions Manual to accompany the Canadian edition has been extensively revised, with all problems checked for accuracy.
1/26/13 1:17 AM
P RE FACE
Acknowledgments During the development of this book, we obtained many helpful suggestions and comments from colleagues from across the country. We sincerely thank the following instructors who provided written reviews of the manuscript in progress: Jennifer Au, Kwantlen Polytechnic University Jeff Banks, Acadia University Alex Brown, University of Alberta Murray Carmichael, University of Alberta François Caron, Laurentian University Alice Cherestes, McGill University Shadi Dalili, University of Toronto, Scarborough Mauro Di Renzo, Vanier College Daniel Donnecke, Camosun College Phil Dutton, University of Windsor Nicholas Duxin, Dawson College Noel George, Ryerson University Dara Gilbert, University of Waterloo Douglas Goltz, University of Winnipeg Robert A. Gossage, Ryerson University Michael Hempstead, York University Robert Hilts, MacEwan University Cristen Hucaluk, University of Ontario Institute of Technology Lori A. Jones, University of Guelph Krystyna Koczanski, University of Manitoba Pippa Lock, McMaster University Matthew Lukeman, Acadia University Celeste MacConnachie, Mount Royal University Arthur Mar, University of Alberta Jaime Martell, Cape Breton University Andrew McWilliams, Ryerson University Hameed A. Mirza, York University Ed Neeland, University of British Columbia Suzanne Pearce, Kwantlen Polytechnic University Mark Quirie, Algonquin College Valerie Reeves, University of New Brunswick Bryan Rowsell, Red Deer College Effiette Sauer, University of Toronto, Scarborough David Staples, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology Jackie Stewart, University of British Columbia James Tait, University of New Brunswick Matthew Thompson, Trent University Stephen Urquhart, University of Saskatchewan Rashmi Venkateswaran, University of Ottawa Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, Langara College James Xidos, University of Manitoba Yanguo Yang, Langara College
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxi
xxi
We would also like to thank Patricia Aroca-Ouellette and her students at Langara College who class-tested our two chapters covering organic chemistry during the Fall semester of 2011. Their feedback and encouragement were greatly appreciated. We acknowledge Prof. Dietmar Kennepohl (Athabasca University) and Dr. Nicole Sandblom (University of Calgary), Dr. Neil Anderson (Onyx Pharmaceuticals), Drs. Chris Flinn, Bob Helleur, Karen Hattenhauer, and Chris Kozak, (Memorial University), Mr. Nicholas Ryan (Memorial University), and Drs. Lucio Gelmini and Robert Hilts (MacEwan University) for helpful discussions and insightful comments. Dr. Ian Hunt of the University of Calgary worked with us in the early development of the organic chemistry chapters. He provided sage advice on the organization of these chapters and made numerous suggestions on how to present organic chemistry in a way that is both rigorous and accessible to the firstyear student. We would like to thank the University of Manitoba chemistry faculty members who met with us to discuss the development of this book. Peter Budzelaar, John Cullen, Francois Gauvin, Krystyna Koczanski, Elena Smirnova, and James Xidos gave us a number of helpful suggestions over the course of a very enriching discussion. We would like to thank our wives Lisa and Tanya for their encouragement and their continuing patience during all the evenings and weekends we spent working on this book when we could have been with our families. Finally, we would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the many members of the team at Pearson Canada and Jouve who were involved throughout the writing and production process: Cathleen Sullivan, Executive Editor; John Polanszky, Senior Developmental Editor; Rachel Thompson, Project Manager; Ben Zaporozan, Media Content Editor; Anthony Leung, Senior Designer. Travis D. Fridgen Lawton E. Shaw
1/26/13 1:17 AM
C
hemistry is relevant to every process occurring around you, at every second. The authors help you understand this connection by weaving specific, vivid examples throughout the text that tell the story of chemistry. Every chapter begins with a brief story that illustrates how chemistry is relevant to all people, at every moment.
8
Are you interested in knowing how nerve cells transmit signals?
Periodic Properties of the Elements
Beginning students of chemistry often think of the science as a mere collection of disconnected data to be memorized by brute force. Not at all! Just look at it properly and everything hangs together and makes sense.
See Chapter 8 to learn why periodic properties are essential to understanding this process.
—Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission
In order for a nerve cell to transmit a signal, sodium and potassium ions must flow in opposite directions through specific ion channels in the cell membrane.
289
8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 289 8.3 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table 291
REAT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE occur not only when a scientist sees
G
8.4 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 295 8.5 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge 296 8.6 Ionic Radii
seen in a new way. In other words, great scientists often see patterns
4
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemistry professor, saw a pattern in the properties
of elements. Mendeleev’s insight led to the periodic table, arguably the single most
303
8.7 Ionization Energy
something new, but also when a scientist sees what everyone else has
where others have seen only disjointed facts. Such was the case in 1869 when
306
important tool for the chemist. Recall that scientists devise theories that explain
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character 310
the underlying reasons for observations. If we think of Mendeleev’s periodic table as a compact way to summarize a large number of observations, then quantum
8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behaviour: The Alkali M t l H l d N bl
mechanics (covered in Chapter 7) is the theory that explains the underlying reasons
Recipe NaHC Na + +
What about the chemistry of everyday life?
When we decode a cookbook, every one of us is a practicing chemist. Cooking is really the oldest, most basic application of physical and chemical forces to natural materials.
H+
CO + 2 H
2O
—Arthur E. Grosser
M08_TRO1785_00_SE_C08.indd 288
Chapter 4 illustrates the role chemistry plays in cuisine, from baking a cake to why lemons go well with fish.
O3 +
1/12/13 3:34 AM
4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine
101
4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 102 4.3 Solutions and Solubility
T
HE AMOUNT OF PRODUCT FORMED IN A CHEMICAL REACTION is related to
4.4 Precipitation Reactions
the amount of reactant that reacts. This concept makes sense intuitively,
4.5 Acid–Base Reactions
but how do we describe and understand this relationship more fully?
4.66 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 115
The second half of this chapter focuses on chemical stoichiometry—the numerical
105 109 111
relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
44.7 .77 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Is Produced? 121
First we will learn how to write balanced chemical equations for chemical
44.8 .88 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 123
reactions. We will also describe some general types of chemical reactions. You have probably witnessed many of these types of reactions in your daily life because they are so common. Have you ever mixed baking soda with vinegar and observed
44.9 .99 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 128
Solutions
the subsequent bubbling? Or have you ever noticed the hard water deposits that f
9
l
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
M04_TRO1785_00_SE_C04.indd 101
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavour to make the mesh ever finer and finer.
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
The AIDS drug Indinavir—shown here as the missing piece in a puzzle depicting the protein HIV-protease—was developed with the help of chemical bonding theories.
9.4 Ionic Bonding and Lattice Energies 328 9.5 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction to Lewis Structures of Molecules 334 9.6 Bond Energies, Bond Lengths, and Bond Vibrations 338 9.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 344 9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge 349 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Drawing Lewis Structures for Odd-Electron Species and Incomplete Octets 354 9.10 Lewis Structures for Hypercoordinate Compounds 356 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model 358
? Th
i
h
bj
f h fi
12
f
One molecule of nonsaline substance (held in the solvent) dissolved in 100 molecules of any volatile liquid decreases the vapour pressure of this liquid by a nearly constant fraction, nearly 0.0105.
10
1/16/13 9:16 AM
Drinking seawater causes dehydration because seawater draws water out of body tissues.
—François-Marie Raoult (1830–1901) 12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 479 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility 481
W No theory ever solves all the puzzles with which it is confronted at a given time; nor are the solutions already achieved often perfect.
325
9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 327
fi
E LEARNED IN CHAPTER 1 that most of the matter we encounter is in the form of mixtures. In this chapter, we focus on homogeneous mixtures, known as solutions. Solutions are mixtures in which atoms
and molecules intermingle on the molecular and atomic scales. Some common
—Karl Popper (1902–1994)
9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 325
bi
examples of solutions include the ocean water we swim in, the gasoline we put into our cars, and the air we breathe. Why do solutions form? How are their properties different from the properties of the pure substances that compose them? As you read this chapter, keep in mind the great number of solutions that surround you at every moment, including those that exist within your own body.
12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation 486 12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility 489 12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration 494 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapour Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure 501 12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 512 12.8 Colloids 515
—Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)
C
HEMICAL BONDING IS AT THE HEART of chemistry. The bonding theories that we are about to examine are—as Karl Popper eloquently states in Similarities in the shapes of sugar and aspartame give both molecules the ability to stimulate a sweet taste sensation.
the above quote—nets cast to understand the world. In the next two
chapters, we will examine three theories with successively finer “meshes.” The
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 368
These examples make the material more accessible by contextualizing the chemistry and grounding it in the world you live in.
10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes 368
first is Lewis theory, a simple model of chemical bonding, which can be carried
I
N CHAPTER 9 , WE EXAMINED a simple model for chemical bonding called
out on the back of an envelope. With just a few dots, dashes, and chemical
Lewis theory. We saw how this model helps us to explain and predict the
symbols, Lewis theory can help us to understand and predict a myriad of chemical
combinations of atoms that form stable molecules. When we combine Lewis
observations. The second is valence bond theory, which treats electrons in a more
theory with the idea that valence electron groups repel one another—the basis of an
quantum-mechanical manner, but stops short of viewing them as belonging to the
approach known as VSEPR theory—we can predict the general shape of a molecule
entire molecule. The third is molecular orbital theory, essentially a full quantum-
from its Lewis structure. We address molecular shapes and their importance in
mechanical treatment of the molecule and its electrons as a whole. Molecular
the first part of this chapter. We then move on to explore two additional bonding
orbital theory has great predictive power, but at the expense of great complexity
theories—called valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory—that are
and intensive computational requirements. Which theory is “correct”? Remember
progressively more sophisticated, but at the cost of being more complex, than
that theories are models that help us understand and predict behaviour. All three of
Lewis theory. As you work through this chapter, our second on chemical bonding,
these theories are extremely useful, depending on exactly what aspect of chemical
10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs 372 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries 377 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity 380
M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 479
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 384 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 386 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization 397
12/01/13 11:33 PM
keep in mind the importance of this topic. In our universe, elements join together
bonding we want to predict or understand.
to form compounds, and that makes many things possible, including our own existence.
324
M09_TRO1785_00_SE_C09.indd 324
367
1/16/13 10:23 AM
M10_TRO1785_00_SE_C10.indd 367
1/16/13 9:01 AM
xxii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Student Interest Throughout the narrative and in special boxed features, interesting descriptions of chemistry in the modern world demonstrate its importance.
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products TABLE 12.6
uent and Surface Water on the Detroit River in Windsor, Ontario 80 ng L-1 63 ng L-1
Surface water sites downstream of WSTP
4–8 ng L-1
Surface water measurements in other countries
1–140 ng L-1
Toxicity level for rainbow trout and algae
1.5–350 μg L-1
Triclosan is another PPCP known for its antimicrobial effects and is a common component in many consumer products such as hand soaps, cleaning supplies, dish detergents, toothpaste, socks, and bedding. In fact, according to Marketplace on CBC.ca, Health Canada has registered avoiding antibacterial products over concerns of antibacternd their way into our wastewater, and if not completely removed, they nd their way back to our water supply. Triclosan has been sh species from the Detroit River and Great Lakes [Alaee et al., 2003 M. Alaee,
ed, and many can be hazardous even though they are seemingly nontoxic. For lters such as 3-benzylidene camphor (3BC)— found in many PPCPs like sunscreen—protect us from exposure to UV light from the sun. These chemicals have been sh. Short-term exposure (a month) to 3BC has been shown to affect reprosh. Weak effects cant decrease were observed on fertility at 3 µg L-1 in fertility at 74 µg L-1, and a cessation of reproduction at lters 285 µg L-1 can bioaccumulate. This means that their concentrations build sh and other aquatic life to higher concentrations than in the surrounding water.
Blood pressure is the force within arteries that drives the circulation of blood throughout the body. Blood pressure in the body is analogous to water pressure in a plumbing system. Just as water pressure pushes water through the pipes to faucets and fixtures throughout a house, blood pressure pushes blood to muscles and other tissues throughout the body. However, unlike the water pressure in a plumbing system—which is typically nearly constant—our blood pressure varies with each heartbeat. When the heart muscle contracts, blood pressure increases; between contractions, it decreases. Systolic blood pressure is the peak pressure during a contraction, and diastolic blood pressure is the lowest pressure between contractions. Just as excessively high water pressure in a plumbing system can damage pipes, so too can high blood pressure in a circulatory system damage the heart and arteries, resulting in increased risk of stroke and heart attack. Medical professionals usually measure blood pressure with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer—an inflatable cuff equipped with a pressure gauge—and a stethoscope. The cuff is wrapped around the patient’s arm and inflated with air. As i i di h ff h i h ff i
▲ A doctor or a nurse typically measures blood pressure with an inflatable cuff that compresses the main artery in the arm. A stethoscope is used to listen for blood flowing through the artery with each heartbeat. throughout the day, a healthy (or normal) value is usually considered to be below 120 mmHg for systolic and below 80 mmHg for diastolic (Table 5.2). High blood pressure, also called hyper-
▲ Chemistry and Medicine boxes show applications relevant to biomedical and health-related topics.
▲
Scientists around the world have been concerned about trace drugs that could affect aquatic environments and eventually make their way to tap water. According to the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada and numerous leading scientists, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is one of the leading emerging issues in environmental chemistry. At least 80 PPCPs have uents from wastewater/sewage treatment plants (WSTPs) and surface waters worldwide. They include analgesics, antibiotics, antiepileptics, antidepressants, blood lipid regulators, and endocrine-disrupting compounds.
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE BLOOD PRESSURE
Chemistry and the Environment boxes relate chapter topics to current environmental and societal issues.
sh plasma from the Detroit River, Organohalog. Compd. 136 (2003), pp. 136–140]. It is toxic at -1 in rainbow trout. Little is known about the effects of exposure or ingestion of high concentrations of PPCPs on the environment or humans. Much research is currently being conducted cation in WSTP, lakes, soils, and at drinking water intakes.
▼ Chemistry In Your Day boxes demonstrate the importance of chemistry in everyday situations.
M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 149
Question With the aid of diagrams, explain why methanol (CH3OH) and water are completely miscible, while pentan-1-ol (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH) is only slightly soluble in water.
1/12/13 1:49 AM
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY Bisphenol A M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 498
12/01/13 11:34 PM
Polycarbonate plastics are clear and almost shatterproof polyBisphenol A mers that have been used to make many familiar consumer items such as baby bottles and water bottles. Polycarbonates are made O CH3 with a compound called bisphenol A, which has been used in the O O polymer industry for more than n CH3 half a century. Bisphenol A is used in many other consumer Polycarbonate products such as dental devices and coatings on the inside of food and beverage cans. Bisphenol A is also a suspected endocrine disruptor. That means it acts like hormones in the endocrine system. It interacts with hormone receptors, interfering with processes such as reproduction and normal development of tissues and organs by changing the chemistry that occurs inside and outside the cell. In 2008, Canada became the first country to ban baby bottles made with bisphenol A, listing it as a toxic substance. Bisphenol A (continued)
M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 485
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxiii
xxiii
12/01/13 11:34 PM
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Annotated Molecular Art Many illustrations have three parts: • • •
a macroscopic image (what you can see with your eyes) a molecular image (what the molecules are doing) a symbolic representation (how chemists represent the process with symbols and equations)
The goal is for you to connect what you see and experience (the macroscopic world) with the molecules responsible for that world, and with the way chemists represent those molecules. After all, this is what chemistry is all about. 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
2 H2O(g)
Symbolic representation
Hydrogen and oxygen react to form gaseous water.
O2
Molecular image H2 2 H2
+
O2
Macroscopic image
2 H2O
▲ FIGURE 4.10 Oxidation–Reduction Reaction The hydrogen in the balloon reacts with oxygen upon ignition to form gaseous water (which is dispersed in the flame).
M04_TRO1785_00_SE_C04.indd 115
▶ FIGURE 4.7 Precipitation of Lead(II) Iodide When a potassium iodide solution is mixed with a lead(II) nitrate solution, a yellow lead(II) iodide precipitate forms.
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) (soluble)
2 KNO3(aq) + (soluble)
(soluble)
PbI2(s) (insoluble)
1/16/13 9:17 AM
K+
2 KI(aq)
Annotations tell the story of the image concisely.
(soluble)
I−
+
NO3−
Pb(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+
Macroscopic image
Molecular image
(soluble)
K+
NO3−
2 KNO3(aq) (soluble)
+ PbI2
PbI2(s) (insoluble)
xxiv
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxiv
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Multipart Images Multipart Images make connections among graphical representations, molecular processes, and the macroscopic world.
NaCl(s) When sodium chloride is first added to water, sodium and chloride ions begin to dissolve into the water.
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
NaCl(s)
As the solution becomes more concentrated, some of the sodium and chloride ions can begin to recrystallize as solid sodium chloride.
NaCl(s)
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
When the rate of dissolution equals the rate of recrystallization, dynamic equilibrium has been reached.
Symbolic representation
Macroscopic image (a) Initial
Na+
NaCl(s)
n io n ut ol tio iss za D lli ta ys cr Re
n io ut n ol tio iss za D lli ta ys cr
Re
Cl−
Molecular image
NaCl(s)
Rate of dissolution > Rate of recrystallization
Rate of dissolution = Rate of recrystallization
(b) Dissolving
(c) Dynamic equilibrium
▲ FIGURE 12.9 Dissolution of NaCl
◀ FIGURE 11.10 Polar and Nonpolar Compounds Water and pentane do not mix because water molecules are polar and pentane molecules are nonpolar. C5H12(l) H2O(l)
Graphical representation M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 490
12/01/13 11:34 PM
xxv
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxv
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Two-Column Example A consistent approach to problem solving is used throughout the book. 46
C h ap ter 2
Atoms and Elements
The left column explains how the problem is solved.
The molar mass of any element yields the conversion factor between mass (in grams) of that element and the amount (in moles) of that element. For carbon: 12.01 g C = 1 mol C or
12.01 g C 1 mol C
or
1 mol C 12.01 g C
We now have all the tools to count the number of atoms in a sample of an element by weighing it. First, obtain the mass of the sample. Then convert it to the amount in moles using the element’s molar mass. Finally, convert to number of atoms using Avogadro’s number. The conceptual plan for these kinds of calculations takes the following form: g element
mol element molar mass of element
The right column shows the implementation of the steps explained in the left column.
number of atoms Avogadro’s number
The next example demonstrates these conversions. Notice that numbers with large exponents, such as 6.022 * 1023, are unbelievably large. Twenty-two copper pennies contain 6.022 * 1023 or 1 mol of copper atoms, but
A four-part structure (“Sort, Strategize, Solve, Check”) provides you with a framework for analyzing and solving problems.
EXAMPLE 2.4 The Mole Concept: Converting from Mass to Moles and Number of Atoms Calculate the number of moles of copper atoms and the number of copper atoms that are in 3.10 g of copper. SORT You are given the mass of copper atoms and asked to find the number of moles of copper atoms and the number of copper atoms.
GIVEN: 3.10 g Cu FIND: Moles and numbers of Cu atoms
STRATEGIZE Convert between the mass of an element in grams and the number of moles of atoms of the element with the molar mass. Then convert from moles to the number of atoms using Avogadro’s number.
CONCEPTUAL PLAN
SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. Begin with 3.10 g Cu and multiply by the appropriate conversion factor to obtain the number of moles of copper.
SOLUTION Number of moles Cu:
Then multiply the number of moles by Avogadro’s number to arrive at the number of copper atoms.
Number of Cu atoms:
g Cu
mol Cu
Many problems are solved with a conceptual plan that provides a visual outline of the steps leading from the given information to the solution.
number of Cu atoms
1 mol Cu
6.022 × 1023 Cu atoms
63.55 g Cu
1 mol Cu
RELATIONSHIPS USED 63.55 g Cu = 1 mol Cu (molar mass of copper) 6.022 * 1023 = 1 mol (Avogadro’s number)
3.10 g Cu *
1 mol Cu = 4.88 * 10-2 mol Cu 63.55 g Cu
4.88 * 10-2 mol Cu *
6.022 * 1023 Cu atoms = 2.94 * 1022 Cu atoms 1 mol Cu
CHECK The answer (the number of copper atoms) is less than 6.022 * 1023 (one mole). This is consistent with the given mass of copper atoms, which is less than the molar mass of copper.
Every worked Example is followed by a “For Practice” problem that you can try to solve on your own. Answers to “For Practice” Problems are in Appendix IV.
FOR PRACTICE 2.4 How many carbon atoms are there in a 1.3-carat diamond? Diamonds are a form of pure carbon. (1 carat = 0.20 grams) FOR MORE PRACTICE 2.4 Calculate the mass of 2.25 * 1022 tungsten atoms.
M02_TRO5213_01_SE_C02.indd 46
xxvi
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxvi
1/19/13 9:34 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Three-Column Example Problem-Solving Procedure Boxes for important categories of problems enable you to see how the same reasoning applies to different problems.
3.4
65
Formulas and Names
The general procedure is shown in the left column.
The formula for the ionic compound composed of calcium and chlorine, however, is CaCl2 because Ca always forms 2+ cations and Cl always forms 1- anions in ionic compounds. In order for this compound to be charge-neutral, it must contain one Ca2 + cation for every two Cl - anions. Summarizing Ionic Compound Formulas ▶ Ionic compounds always contain positive and negative ions. ▶ In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of the positive ions (cations) must equal
the sum of the charges of the negative ions (anions). ▶ A formula reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of ions.
To write the formula for an ionic compound, follow the procedure in the left column in the following example. Two examples of how to apply the procedure are provided in the centre and right columns.
PROCEDURE FOR … Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
1. Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge followed by the symbol for the nonmetal anion and its charge. Obtain charges from the element’s group number in the periodic table (refer to Figure 2.12). 2. Adjust the subscript on each cation and anion to balance the overall charge. 3. Check that the sum of the charges of the cations equals the sum of the charges of the anions.
EXAMPLE 3.2 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
EXAMPLE 3.3 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Write a formula for the ionic compound that forms between aluminum and oxygen.
Write a formula for the ionic compound that forms between calcium and oxygen.
Al3 +
O2 -
Al3 +
O2 -
Al2 O3
Ca2 +
O2 -
Ca2 +
O2 -
Two worked examples, side by side, make it easy to see how differences are handled.
CaO
cations: 2(3 +) = 6 + anions: 3(2-) = 6 The charges balance.
cations: 2 + anions: 2 The charges balance.
FOR PRACTICE 3.2 Write a formula for the compound formed between potassium and sulfur.
FOR PRACTICE 3.3 Write a formula for the compound formed between aluminum and nitrogen.
Naming Ionic Compounds The first step in naming an ionic compound is to identify it as one. Ionic compounds are often composed of metals and nonmetals; any time you see a metal and one or more nonmetals together in a chemical formula, assume that you have an ionic compound. Table 3.2 gives names of common cations and anions. In the case of KBr, the name of the K + ion is potassium. For metals that form cations with only one charge, the name of the cation is the same as the metal. For metals that can form cations with different charges, the name of the cation is the name of the metal followed by the charge in roman numerals in brackets. Thus, Fe2 + is named iron(II) and Fe3 + is named iron(III). Many transition metals give ions with different charges (Figure 3.6 ▶). Names for monoatomic anions consist of the base name of the element followed by the suffix –ide. For example, the base name for bromine is brom, and the name of the Br - ion is bromide. The name of KBr is the name of the K + cation, followed by the name of the Br - anion: potassium bromide.
The name of the ionic compound is simply the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion.
Every worked Example is followed by one or more “For Practice” problems that you can try to solve on your own. Answers to “For Practice” Problems are in Appendix IV.
Main groups Transition elements
▲ FIGURE 3.6 Transition Elements Metals that can have different charges in different compounds are usually (but not always) found in the transition elements.
xxvii M03_TRO1785_00_SE_C03.indd 65
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxvii
1/16/13 8:17 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Key Concepts
End-of-Chapter Review Section
products. The general form for these types of calculations is often as follows: volume A S amount A (in moles) S amount B (in moles) S quantity of B (in desired units). In cases where the reaction is carried out at STP, the molar volume at STP (22.7 L = 1 mol) can be used to convert between volume in litres and amount in moles.
Pressure (5.1, 5.2)
The end-of-chapter review section helps you study the chapter’s concepts and skills in a systematic way that is ideal for test preparation. Approximately 120 new end-of-chapter problems have been added, most of these in the cumulative and challenge categories.
Gas pressure is the force per unit area that results from gas particles colliding with the surfaces around them. Pressure is measured in a number of units, including bar, mbar, mmHg, torr, Pa, psi, and atm.
The Simple Gas Laws (5.3) Kinetic Molecular Theory and Its Applications (5.8, 5.9)
The simple gas laws express relationships between pairs of variables when the other variables are held constant. Boyle’s law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Charles’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature. Avogadro’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the amount (in moles).
Kinetic molecular theory is a quantitative model for gases. The theory has three main assumptions: (1) the gas particles are negligibly small, (2) the average kinetic energy of a gas particle is proportional to the temperature in kelvin, and (3) the collision of one gas particle with another is completely elastic (the particles do not stick together). The gas laws all follow from the kinetic molecular theory. We can also use the theory to derive the expression for the root mean square velocity of gas particles. This velocity is inversely proportional to the molar mass of the gas, and therefore—at a given temperature—smaller gas particles are (on average) moving more quickly than larger ones. The kinetic molecular theory also allows us to predict the mean free path of a gas particle (the distance it travels between collisions) and relative rates of diffusion or effusion.
The Ideal Gas Law and Its Applications (5.4, 5.5) The ideal gas law, PV = nRT , gives the relationship among all four gas variables and contains the simple gas laws within it. We can use the ideal gas law to find one of the four variables given the other three. We can use it to calculate the molar volume of an ideal gas, which is 22.7 L at STP, and to calculate the density and molar mass of a gas.
Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures (5.6) Real Gases (5.10)
In a mixture of gases, each gas acts independently of the others so that any overall property of the mixture is the sum of the properties of the individual components. The pressure of any individual component is its partial pressure.
Real gases differ from ideal gases to the extent that they do not always fit the assumptions of kinetic molecular theory. These assumptions tend to break down at high pressures, where the volume is higher than predicted for an ideal gas because the particles are no longer negligibly small compared to the space between them. The assumptions also break down at low temperatures where the pressure is lower than predicted because the attraction between molecules combined with low kinetic energies causes partially inelastic collisions. The van der Waals equation predicts gas properties under nonideal conditions.
Gas Stoichiometry (5.7)
Key Terms Section 5.1
Section 5.3
Section 5.6
Section 5.9
pressure (145)
Boyle’s law (150) Charles’s law (153) Avogadro’s law (155)
mean free path (176) diffusion (176) effusion (176) Graham’s law of effusion (177)
ideal gas law (156) ideal gas (156) ideal gas constant (156)
partial pressure (Pn) (161) Dalton’s law of partial pressures (162) mole fraction (xa) (162) hypoxia (163) oxygen toxicity (164) nitrogen narcosis (164) vapour pressure (165)
Section 5.5
Section 5.8
molar volume (158) standard temperature and pressure (STP) (158)
kinetic molecular theory (170)
Section 5.2 millimetre of mercury (mmHg) (147) barometer (147) torr (147) pascal (Pa) (147) atmosphere (atm) (147) standard pressure (148) bar (148) millibar (mbar) (148) manometer (148)
Section 5.4
Section 5.10 van der Waals equation (180) real gas (180)
In reactions involving gaseous reactants and products, quantities are often reported in volumes at specified pressures and temperatures. We can convert these quantities to amounts (in moles) using the ideal gas law. Then we can use the stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced equation to determine the stoichiometric amounts of other reactants or
▲ The Key Concepts section summarizes the chapter’s most important ideas. M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 183
1/12/13 1:51 AM
Key Skills
▲ Key Terms list all of the chapter’s boldfaced terms, organized by section in order of appearance, with page references. Definitions are found in the Glossary.
Calculating Internal Energy from Heat and Work (6.3) • Example 6.1
• For Practice 6.1
• Exercises 41–44, 53–54
Finding Heat from Temperature Changes (6.4) • Example 6.2
• For Practice 6.2
• For More Practice 6.2
• Exercises 47–48
Thermal Energy Transfer (6.4) • Example 6.3
• For Practice 6.3
• Exercises 49–50, 63–68
Finding Work from Volume Changes (6.4) • Example 6.4
Key Equations and Relationships
• Example 6.5
Relationship Between Pressure (P ), Force (F ), and Area ( A ) (5.2) P =
• Example 6.6
• Exercises 51–52
• For Practice 6.6
• Examples 6.7, 6.13
• For More Practice 6.5
• Exercises 71–72
• Exercises 57–58
• For Practice 6.7, 6.13
• For More Practice 6.7
• Exercises 59–62
Finding Δ r H Using Calorimetry (6.7) • Example 6.8
Charles’s Law: Relationship Between Volume (V ) and Temperature (T ) (5.3) V ∝ T (in K)
• For Practice 6.8
• Exercises 73–74
Finding Δ r H Using Hess’s Law (6.8)
V1 V2 = T1 T2
• Example 6.9
• For Practice 6.9
• For More Practice 6.9
• Exercises 77–80
Finding Δ r H Using Standard Enthalpies of Formation (6.9)
n) (5.3)
• Examples 6.10, 6.11, 6.12
V ∝ n V2 V1 = n1 n2 Ideal Gas Law: Relationship Between Volume (V ), Pressure (P ), Temperature (T ), and Amount (n) (5.4) PV = nRT
▲ The Key Equations and Relationships section lists each of the key equations and important quantitative relationships from the chapter.
• For Practice 6.5
Determining Heat from ?H and Stoichiometry (6.6)
1 V ∝ P P1V1 = P2V2
M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 183
• For More Practice 6.4
Predicting Endothermic and Exothermic Processes (6.6)
F A
Boyle’s Law: Relationship Between Pressure (P ) and Volume (V ) (5.3)
Avogadro’s Law: Relationship Between Volume (V
• For Practice 6.4
Using Bomb Calorimetry to Calculate Δ rU (6.5)
• Exercises 83–90
▲ The Key Skills section lists the major types of problems that you should be able to solve, with the chapter examples that show the techniques needed—along with the “For Practice” problems and end-of-chapter exercises that offer practice in those skills.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 228 1/12/13 1:51 AM
• For Practice 6.10, 6.11, 6.12
1/16/13 10:07 AM
xxviii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxviii
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Problems by Topic Energy Units
End-of-Chapter Review Exercises
33. Perform each conversion between energy units: a. 534 kWh to J c. 567 Cal to J b. 215 kJ to Cal d. 2.85 * 103 J to cal
Answers to odd-numbered questions in Appendix III
34. Perform each conversion between energy units: a. 231 cal to kJ c. 4.99 * 103 kJ to kWh b. 132 * 104 kJ to kcal d. 2.88 * 104 J to Cal 35. Suppose that a person eats a diet of 2387 Calories per day. Convert this energy into each unit: a. J b. kJ c. kWh
18. What is pressure-volume work? How is it calculated?
2. What is energy? What is work? Give some examples of each.
19. What is calorimetry? Explain the difference between a coffeecup calorimeter and a bomb calorimeter. What is each designed to measure?
3. What is kinetic energy? What is potential energy? Give some examples of each. 4. What is the law of conservation of energy? How does it relate to energy exchanges between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings? 5. What is the SI unit of energy? List some other common units of energy. 6. What is the first law of thermodynamics? What are its implications? 7. A friend claims to have constructed a machine that creates electricity, but requires no energy input. Explain why you should be
37. Which statement is true of the internal energy of a system and its surroundings during an energy exchange with a negative ΔUsys? a. The internal energy of the system increases and the internal energy of the surroundings decreases.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 229
1/16/13 10:07 AM
20. What is the change in enthalpy (ΔH) for a chemical reaction? How is ΔH different from ΔU ? 21. Explain the difference between an exothermic and an endothermic reaction. Give the sign of ΔH for each type of reaction. 22. From a molecular viewpoint, where does the energy emitted in an exothermic chemical reaction come from? Why does the reaction mixture undergo an increase in temperature even though energy is emitted? 23. From a molecular viewpoint, where does the energy absorbed i d h i h i l i h d h i
▲ Review Questions can be used to review chapter content.
Challenge Problems 120. A typical frostless refrigerator uses 655 kWh of energy per year in the form of electricity. Suppose that all of this electricity is generated at a power plant that burns coal containing 3.2% sulfur by mass and that all of the sulfur is emitted as SO2 when the coal is burned. If all of the SO2 goes on to react with rainwater to form H2SO4, what mass of H2SO4 does the annual operation of the refrigerator produce? (Hint: Assume that the remaining percentage of the coal is carbon, and begin by calculating Δ r H ° for the combustion of carbon.)
Cumulative Problems 95. The kinetic energy of a rolling billiard ball is given by KE = 1√2 mv 2. Suppose a 0.17 kg billiard ball is rolling down a pool table with an initial speed of 4.5 m s-1. As it travels, it loses some of its energy as heat. The ball slows down to 3.8 m s-1 and then collides head-on with a second billiard ball of equal mass. The first billiard ball completely stops and the second one rolls away with a velocity of 3.8 m s-1. Assume the first billiard ball is the system and calculate w, q, and ΔU for the process. 96. A 100 W light bulb is placed in a cylinder equipped with a movable piston. The light bulb is turned on for 0.015 hour, and the assembly expands from an initial volume of 0.85 L to a final volume of 5.88 L against an external pressure of 1.0 atm. Use the wattage of the light bulb and the time it is on to calculate ΔU in joules (assume that the cylinder and light bulb assembly is the system and assume two significant figures). Calculate w and q.
Internal Energy, Heat, and Work
▲ Problems by Topic are paired, with answers to the odd-numbered questions appearing in the appendix.
Review Questions 1. What is thermochemistry? Why is it important?
36. A particular frost-free refrigerator uses about 745 kWh of electrical energy per year. Express this amount of energy in each unit: a. J b. kJ c. Cal
121. A large sport utility vehicle has a mass of 2.5 * 103 kg . Calculate the mass of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere upon accelerating the SUV from 0.0 mph to 65.0 mph. Assume that the required energy comes from the combustion of octane with 30% efficiency. (Hint: Use KE = 1> 2 mv 2 to calculate the kinetic energy required for the acceleration.)
◀ When carbon dioxide sublimes, the gaseous CO2 is cold enough to cause water vapour in the air to condense, forming fog.
▲ Cumulative Problems combine material from different parts of the chapter, and often from previous chapters as well, allowing you to see how well you can integrate the course material.
122. Combustion of natural gas (primarily methane) occurs in most household heaters. The heat given off in this reaction is used to raise the temperature of the air in the house. Assuming that all the energy given off in the reaction goes to heating up only the air in the house, determine the mass of methane required to heat the air in a house by 10.0 °C. Assume the following: house
dimensions are 30.0 m * 30.0 m * 3.0 m; molar heat capacity of air is 30 J K - 1 mol - 1; and 1.00 mol of air occupies 22.7 L for all temperatures concerned. 123. When backpacking in the wilderness, hikers often boil water to sterilize it for drinking. Suppose that you are planning a backpacking trip and will need to boil 35 L of water for your group. What volume of fuel should you bring? Assume the following: the fuel has an average formula of C7H16; 15% of the heat generated from combustion goes to heating the water (the rest is lost to the surroundings); the density of the fuel is 0.78 g mL-1; the initial temperature of the water is 25.0 °C; and the standard enthalpy of formation of C7H16 is -224.4 kJ mol-1. 124. An ice cube of mass 9.0 g is added to a cup of coffee. The coffee’s initial temperature is 90.0 °C and the cup contains 120.0 g of liquid. Assume that the specific heat capacity of the coffee is the same as that of water. The heat of fusion of ice (the heat associated with ice melting) is 6.0 kJ mol-1. Find the temperature of the coffee after the ice melts. 125. The optimum drinking temperature for a Shiraz is 15.0 °C. A certain bottle of Shiraz having a heat capacity of 3.40 kJ °C - 1 is 23.1 °C at room temperature. The heat of fusion of ice is
▲ Challenge Problems are designed to challenge stronger students.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 234
1/16/13 10:07 AM
Conceptual Problems 133. Which statement is true of the internal energy of the system and its surroundings following a process in which ΔUsys = + 65 kJ? Explain. a. The system and the surroundings both lose 65 kJ of energy. b. The system and the surroundings both gain 65 kJ of energy. M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 229 c. The system loses 65 kJ of energy and the surroundings gain 65 kJ of energy. d. The system gains 65 kJ of energy and the surroundings lose 65 kJ of energy. 134. The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. Which statement is true of an isothermal (constanttemperature) expansion of an ideal gas against a constant external pressure? Explain. a. ΔU is positive c. q is positive b. w is positive d. ΔU is negative 135. Which expression describes the heat evolved in a chemical reaction when the reaction is carried out at constant pressure? Explain. a. ΔU - w b. ΔU c. ΔU - q 136. Two identical refrigerators are plugged in for the first time. Refrigerator A is empty (except for air) and refrigerator B is filled with jugs of water. The compressors of both refrigerators immediately turn on and begin cooling the interiors of the refrigerators. After two hours, the compressor of refrigerator A turns off, while the compressor of refrigerator B continues to run. The next day, the compressor of refrigerator A can be
heard turning on and off every few minutes, while the compressor of refrigerator B turns off and on every hour or so (and stays on longer each time). Explain these observations. 137. A 1 kg cylinder of aluminum and 1 kg jug of water, both at room temperature, are put into a refrigerator. After 1/16/13 one hour, 10:07 AM the temperature of each object is measured. One of the objects is much cooler than the other. Which one is cooler and why? 138. Two substances A and B, initially at different temperatures, are thermally isolated from their surroundings and allowed to come into thermal contact. The mass of substance A is twice the mass of substance B, but the specific heat capacity of substance B is four times the specific heat capacity of substance A. Which substance will undergo a larger change in temperature? 139. When 1 mol of a gas burns at constant pressure, it produces 2418 J of heat and does 5 J of work. Identify Δ rU , Δ r H , q, and w for the process. 140. In an exothermic reaction, the reactants lose energy and the reaction feels hot to the touch. Explain why the reaction feels hot even though the reactants are losing energy. Where does the energy come from? 141. Which statement is true of a reaction in which ΔV is positive? Explain. a. ΔH = ΔU c. ΔH 6 ΔU b. ΔH 7 ΔU
▲ Conceptual Problems let you test your grasp of key chapter concepts, often through reasoning that involves little or no math.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 233
1/16/13 10:07 AM
xxix M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 235
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxix
1/16/13 10:08 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
MasteringChemistry® tutorials guide students through the most challenging topics while helping them make connections between related chemical concepts. Immediate feedback and tutorial assistance help students understand and master concepts and skills in chemistry—allowing them to retain more knowledge and perform better in this course and beyond.
MasteringChemistry® is the only system to provide instantaneous feedback specific to the most common wrong answers. Students can submit an answer and receive immediate, error-specific feedback. Simpler sub-problems— hints—are provided upon request.
Math Remediation links found in selected tutorials launch algorithmically generated math exercises that give students unlimited opportunity for practice and mastery of math skills. Math Remediation exercises provide additional practice and free up class and office-hour time to focus on the chemistry. Exercises include guided solutions, sample problems, and learning aids for extra help, and offer helpful feedback when students enter incorrect answers.
xxx
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxx
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printer text, and include powerful interactive and customization functions. • You can create notes, highlight text in different colors, create book marks, zoom, click hyperlinked words and phrases to view definitions, and view in single-page or twopage view. • You can perform a full-text search and have the ability to save and export notes. • Instructors can share their notes and highlights with students and can also hide chapters that they do not want their students to read.
NEW! 15 Pause and Predict Video Quizzes ask students to predict the outcome of experiments and demonstrations as they watch the videos; a set of multiple-choice questions challenges students to apply the concepts from the video to related scenarios. These videos are also available in web and mobile-friendly formats through the Study Area of MasteringChemistry and in the Pearson eText.
NEW! 15 Simulations, assignable in MasteringChemistry®, include those developed by the PhET Chemistry Group, and the leading authors in the simulation development covering some of the most difficult chemistry concepts.
xxxi
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxxi
1/26/13 1:18 AM
The Mastering platform was developed by scientists for science students and instructors. Mastering has been refined from data-driven insights derived from over a decade of real-world use by faculty and students. NEW! Calendar Features The Course Home default page now features a Calendar View displaying upcoming assignments and due dates. • Instructors can schedule assignments by dragging and dropping the assignment onto a date in the calendar. If the due date of an assignment needs to change, instructors can drag the assignment to the new due date and change the “available from and to dates” accordingly. • The calendar view gives students a syllabus-style overview of due dates, making it easy to see all assignments due in a given month. Gradebook Every assignment is automatically graded. Shades of red highlight struggling students and challenging assignments. Gradebook Diagnostics This screen provides you with your favorite diagnostics. With a single click, charts summarize the most difficult problems, vulnerable students, grade distribution, and even score improvement over the course.
NEW! Learning Outcomes Let Mastering do the work in tracking student performance against your learning outcomes: • Add your own or use the publisher provided learning outcomes. • View class performance against the specified learning outcomes. • Export results to a spreadsheet that you can further customize and share with your chair, dean, administrator, or accreditation board.
xxxiiii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxxii
1/26/13 1:18 AM
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd i
A Molecular Approach
1/26/13 1:17 AM
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd ii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Chemistry Canadian Edition
A Molecular Approach
Nivaldo J. Tro Travis D. Fridgen Lawton E. Shaw Westmont College
Memorial University of Newfoundland
Athabasca University
With special contributions by Robert S. Boikess Rutgers University
Toronto
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd iii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Vice-President, Editorial Director: Gary Bennett Executive Editor: Cathleen Sullivan Marketing Manager: Jenna Wulff Supervising Developmental Editor: Maurice Esses Senior Developmental Editor: John Polanszky Project Manager: Rachel Thompson Production Editor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC Copyeditor: Nancy Sixsmith Proofreader: Audra Gorgiev Compositor: Jouve Photo Researcher: Eric Schrader Permissions Researcher: Sheila McDowell Laing Art Director: Julia Hall Cover and Interior Designer: Anthony Leung Cover Image: Graham Johnson/Graham Johnson Medical Media
About the Cover: The cover shows the hexagonal structure of water ice. Oxygen atoms are red. Hydrogen atoms are white, or gray. H2O molecules are bound together by hydrogen bonds with neighbouring H2O molecules, forming a three dimensional hexagonal lattice. Water molecules sublime, or change into a gaseous state, along the edge of the hexagonal structure. Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on page C-1. Original edition published by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. This edition is authorized for sale only in Canada. If you purchased this book outside the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the publisher or the author. Copyright © 2014 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Canada Inc., Permissions Department, 26 Prince Andrew Place, Don Mills, Ontario, M3C 2T8, or fax your request to 416-447-3126, or submit a request to Permissions Requests at www.pearsoncanada.ca.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [CKV] Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Tro, Nivaldo J. Chemistry : a molecular approach / Nivaldo J. Tro, Travis D. Fridgen, Lawton E. Shaw. —Canadian ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-511521-3 1. Chemistry, Physical and theoretical—Textbooks. I. Fridgen, Travis D. (Travis David), 1970– II. Shaw, Lawton, 1972– III. Title. QD453.3.T76 2014 541 C2012-901625-X
ISBN 978-0-13-511521-3
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd iv
1/26/13 1:17 AM
To Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden -Nivaldo Tro To Cailyn, Carter, Colton, and Chloe -Travis Frigden To Calvin, Nathan, Alexis, and Andrew -Lawton Shaw
About the Authors
N
ivaldo Tro is a Professor of Chemistry at
Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty
member since 1990. He received his Ph.D. in chemistry from Stanford University for work on developing and using optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces in ultrahigh vacuum. He then went on
to the University of California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution. Since coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces. He has been honored as Westmont’s outstanding teacher of the year three times and has also received the college’s outstanding researcher of the year award. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden. In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his family.
T
ravis Fridgen is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s,
Newfoundland and Labrador. He has established a CFI- and NSERC-funded laboratory and a vibrant research group with the goal of studying the energetics, reactions, and structures of solvated
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd v
1/26/13 1:17 AM
vi
About the Authors
gaseous ion complexes composed of metal ions and biologically relevant molecules such as DNA bases, amino acids, and peptides, using a combination of mass spectrometrometry, tunable infrared lasers, and computational chemistry. He graduated with a B.Sc. (Hons) in chemistry and a B.Ed. from Trent University and Queen’s University, respectively. His Ph.D. in physical chemistry is from Queen’s University, where he studied ion and neutral spectroscopy in a cryogenic matrix environment. During his postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Waterloo, he first began conducting research using mass spectrometric methods. During a brief period as an assistant professor at Wilfrid Laurier University, he initiated a collaboration to spectroscopically determine structures of gas phase protonbound dimer ions. He teaches courses in physical chemistry, but he has mostly taught first-year chemistry courses (at Trent, Waterloo, Laurier, and Memorial). He lives in Mount Pearl, Newfoundland and Labrador, with his wife, Lisa, and four children, Cailyn, Carter, Colton, and Chloe. They are all avid fans of the Ottawa Senators and enjoy busy, active lives that include outdoor activities and sports, including basketball, gymnastics, karate, kickboxing, volleyball, and snow shovelling (good old Newfoundland).
L
awton Shaw received his Ph.D. in chemistry
from the University of Calgary, in the area of photochemical reaction mechanisms of
organometallic complexes. Shortly after graduating, he joined the full-time teaching faculty at Mount Royal College in Calgary, where he developed one of the first science courses at Mount Royal delivered partially online. This work led to a serious interest
in online and distance education. In 2005, he joined the Centre for Science at Athabasca University, where he teaches and coordinates distance-delivered chemistry courses. This experience led to the book Accessible Elements: Teaching Science Online and at a Distance, which he co-edited. His research interests are split between the realms of teaching/education and environmental chemistry. Most recently, he has worked as a visiting academic at the Water Studies Centre at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, where he studied the effects of pharmaceuticals and personal care products on biofilms in urbanized streams and wetlands. He is a former president of College Chemistry Canada. He lives in St. Albert, Alberta, with his wife, Tanya, and their four children. Their family leisure time is filled with activities such as cross-country skiing, swimming, and camping.
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd vi
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Brief Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Change Atoms and Elements Molecules, Compounds, and Nomenclature Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry Gases Thermochemistry The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom Periodic Properties of the Elements
1 29 57 101 145 193 236 288
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
324
Solutions Chemical Kinetics Chemical Equilibrium Acids and Bases Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium Gibbs Energy and Thermodynamics Electrochemistry Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry Organic Chemistry I: Structures Organic Chemistry II: Reactions Biochemistry Chemistry of the Nonmetals Metals and Metallurgy Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
479 527 578 622 679 735 780 830 866 908 954 988 1022 1043
9
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
367 418
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry
A-1
Appendix II: Useful Data
A-7
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises
A-17
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
A-57
Glossary
G-1
Credits
C-1
Index
I-1
vii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd vii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Contents Preface
1
of Neutrons Varies 39 Electrons 40
xviii
Ions: Losing and Gaining
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Where Did Elements Come From?
Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Change
1
1.1 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties 1.2 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change 1.3 The Units of Measurement
3 4
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 50 Key Concepts 51 Relationships 51 Key Skills 52
11
12
18
19
50 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 52 Problems by Topic 52 Cumulative Problems 55 Challenge Problems 56 Conceptual Problems 56
3
Molecules, Compounds, and Nomenclature
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 3.2 Chemical Bonds 22
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 23 Problems by Topic 23 Cumulative Problems 26 Challenge Problems 27 Conceptual Problems 28
47
Ions and the Periodic Table 50
General Problem-Solving Strategy 19 Order-of-Magnitude Estimations 20 Problems Involving an Equation 20 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 22 Key Concepts 22 Relationships 22 Key Skills 23
23
Atoms and Elements
2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms 2.2 Early Ideas About the Building Blocks of Matter 2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
The Discovery of the Electron 34 The Discovery of the Nucleus 36 Protons, the Atomic Number, and Neutrons 38 Isotopes: When the Number
57 57 59
3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
60
Types of Chemical Formulas 60
3.4 Formulas and Names
64
Ionic Compounds 64 Molecular Compounds 67 Naming Acids 69
29 30 31 32
The Law of Conservation of Mass 32 The Law of Definite Proportions 33 The Law of Multiple Proportions 33 John Dalton and the Atomic Theory 34
2.4 Atomic Structure
52
Ionic Bonds 59 Covalent Bonds 60
3.5 Organic Compounds
2
44
The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” 44 Converting Between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms 45 Converting Between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) 45
2.7 The Periodic Table of the Elements
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Integrity in Data 1.5 Solving Chemical Problems
42
Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules 43
2.6 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them
Counting Significant Figures 13 Exact Numbers 14 Significant Figures in Calculations 15 Rules for Calculations 15 Rules for Rounding 16 Precision and Accuracy 17 Gathering
2.5 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
2
The Standard Units 4 The Metre: A Measure of Length 4 The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass 5 The Second: A Measure of Time 5 The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature 5 SI Prefixes 6 Conversions Involving the SI Prefixes 7 Derived Units 8
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Bone Density 1.4 The Reliability of a Measurement
41
70
Naming Hydrocarbons 72 Cyclic Hydrocarbons 76 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 77 Functionalized Hydrocarbons 78
3.6 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds
81
Molar Mass of a Compound 81 Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing 81
3.7 Composition of Compounds
83
Conversion Factors in Chemical Formulas 84
34
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Drug Tablets 3.8 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
86
86
Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds 88 Combustion Analysis 89
viii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd viii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
ix
CO N T E N T S
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 91 Key Concepts 92 Relationships 92 Key Skills 93
91 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 93 Problems by Topic 94 Cumulative Problems 99 Challenge Problems 100 Conceptual Problems 100
4
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 150 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 152 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) 155
93
5.4 The Ideal Gas Law 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
101 102
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
4.3 Solutions and Solubility
105
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
4.4 Precipitation Reactions 4.5 Acid–Base Reactions
109 111
Acid–Base Reactions Evolving a Gas 114
4.6 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases 5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
Oxidation States 116 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States 117 Identifying Redox Reactions 118 120
121
Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 121 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 121
123
Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses 124 Conceptual Plan 125
128
Solution Concentration 128
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Blended Ethanol Gasoline
129
Solution 135
EXERCISES Review Questions 137 Problems by Topic 137 Cumulative Problems 141 Challenge Problems 143 Conceptual Problems 143
137
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd ix
6
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Pressure in Outer Space
181
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 183 Key Concepts 183 Key Equations and Relationships 184 Key Skills 184
183
EXERCISES Review Questions 185 Problems by Topic 186 Cumulative Problems 189 Challenge Problems 191 Conceptual Problems 192
185
Thermochemistry
6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions
193 193 194
6.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Perpetual Motion
196
Machines Internal Energy 197
197
6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work
202
Heat 202 Work: Pressure–Volume Work 206
145 145 146
Pressure Units 147 The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory 148
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Blood Pressure 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law
177
Units of Energy 196
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 135 Key Concepts 135 Key Equations and Relationships 136 Key Skills 136
Gases
176
The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles 178 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 179 Van der Waals Equation 180 Real Gases 180
115
4.9 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry
170
Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law 172 Temperature and Molecular Velocities 173
Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions 106 The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 107
4.8 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
167
Molar Volume and Stoichiometry 169
How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 104
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bleached Blonde 4.7 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Is Produced?
161
Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures 163 Collecting Gases over Water 165
101
4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine 4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
5
158
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure 158 Density of a Gas 159 Molar Mass of a Gas 160
5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
Using Molarity in Calculations 131 Stoichiometry 133
156
149
150
6.5 Measuring Δ rU for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
208 210
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View 212 Stoichiometry Involving ΔrH: Thermochemical Equations 213
6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring Δ r H 6.8 Relationships Involving Δ r H
214 216
1/26/13 1:17 AM
x
CO NT ENTS
6.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation
218
Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes 218 Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 220
6.10 Energy Use and the Environment
224
Implications of Dependence on Fossil Fuels 224 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 226 Key Concepts 227 Relationships 227 Key Skills 228
226
The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
a Bar Code for Atoms
236 237 237
242
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Potassium Iodide in Radiation Emergencies The Noble Gases (Group 18) 316
261
EXERCISES Review Questions 318 Problems by Topic 319 Cumulative Problems 321 Challenge Problems 322 Conceptual Problems 323
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 280 Key Concepts 281 Key Equations and Relationships 281 Key Skills 282
280
EXERCISES Review Questions 282 Problems by Topic 283 Cumulative Problems 285 Challenge Problems 286 Conceptual Problems 287
282
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd x
316
259
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 270 Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms 271 Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms 275 Electron Configurations for Transition Metals 278 Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions 278
313
The Alkali Metals (Group 1) 313 The Halogens (Group 17) 314
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 317 Key Concepts 317 Relationships 318 Key Skills 318
269
310
Metallic Character 311
8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behaviour: The Alkali Metals, Halogens, and Noble Gases
Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom 259
7.7 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
303 306
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
252
s Orbitals (l = 0) 262 p Orbitals (l = 1) 264 d Orbitals (l = 2) 265 f Orbitals (l = 3) 265 The Phase of Orbitals 266 The Hydrogen-Like Wave Functions 267
296
Trends in First Ionization Energy 306 Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy 308 Ionization Energies of Transition Metals 309 Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies 309 Electron Affinity 311
248
295
8.6 Ionic Radii 8.7 Ionization Energy
The de Broglie Wavelength 255 The Uncertainty Principle 256 Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps 258
7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
291
Effective Nuclear Charge 298 Slater’s Rules 300 Atomic Radii of d-block Elements 301
7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy 254
7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
289 289
8.4 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 8.5 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge
The Wave Nature of Light 238 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 240 Interference and Diffraction 241
7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atomic Spectroscopy,
288
Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table 292 Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table 293 The d-block and f-block Elements 294
229
7.1 Quantum Mechanics: The Theory That Explains the Behaviour of the Absolutely Small 7.2 The Nature of Light
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Radiation Treatment for Cancer The Particle Nature of Light 244
Periodic Properties of the Elements
8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 8.3 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 229 Problems by Topic 229 Cumulative Problems 233 Challenge Problems 234 Conceptual Problems 235
7
8
9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
317 Key Equations and
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
318
324
Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs Types of Chemical Bonds Representing Valance Electrons with Dots Ionic Bonding and Lattice Energies
325 325 327 328
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer 328 Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story 329 The Born– Haber Cycle 329 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size 331 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge 331 Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality 332
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ionic Compounds in Medicine
9.5 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction to Lewis Structures of Molecules
334
334
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xi
CO N T E N T S
Drawing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 334 Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality 337 Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 338
9.6 Bond Energies, Bond Lengths, and Bond Vibrations
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Bond Energy 338 Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions 340 Bond Lengths 342 Bond Vibrations 343
9.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity 345 Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character 346 Resonance 349
349
Formal Charge 351
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Drawing Lewis Structures for Odd-Electron Species and Expanded Octets Odd-Electron Species 354
354
Incomplete Octets 354
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner
355
9.10 Lewis Structures for Hypercoordinate Compounds 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Lewis
356 358
Structure of Ozone
359
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 360 Key Concepts 360 Relationships 361 Key Skills 361
360 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 362 Problems by Topic 362 Cumulative Problems 364 Challenge Problems 365 Conceptual Problems 366
10
362
368 368
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry 369 Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry 369 Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry 370 Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry 317 Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry 371
10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xi
397
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) 398 Period 2 Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 402 Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 407 Polyatomic Molecules 409 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 410 Key Concepts 410 Relationships 411 Key Skills 411
410 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 411 Problems by Topic 412 Cumulative Problems 414 Challenge Problems 416 Conceptual Problems 417
11
Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
11.1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
411
418 419 419
Changes Between States 421
Ion-Induced Dipole Forces 423 Dispersion Force 423 Dipole–Dipole Force 425 Hydrogen Bonding 428 Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces 430 Ion–Dipole Force 431
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
432
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
433
Surface Tension 433 Viscosity 435
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Viscosity and Motor Oil 11.5 Vaporization and Vapour Pressure
372
435
436
The Process of Vaporization 436 The Energetics of Vaporization 438 Vapour Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium 439 The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter 445
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion Sublimation 446 Fusion 447 Melting and Freezing 447
377
Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules 378
10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: How Soap Works
10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
Capillary Action 436
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 372 Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 374 Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 375
10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries
393
sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds 393 Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes 395
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together 422
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 367
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes
sp2 Hybridization and
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Chemistry of Vision 344
9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge
sp3 Hybridization 387 Double Bonds 389
338
384 386
380 383
446 Energetics of
11.7 Heating Curve for Water 11.8 Phase Diagrams
448 450
The Major Features of a Phase Diagram 450 Navigation Within a Phase Diagram 451 The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances 452
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xii
CO NT ENTS
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT:
453
Water Pollution
454
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography 11.11 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures
455 457
Closest-Packed Structures 460
11.12 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types Molecular Solids 463 Atomic Solids 465
463
Ionic Solids 463
11.13 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory
467
Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors 468 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 468 Key Concepts 469 Relationships 470 Key Skills 470
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 518 Key Concepts 518 Relationships 519 Key Skills 520
515 518 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 520 Problems by Topic 521 Cumulative Problems 524 Challenge Problems 525 Conceptual Problems 526
13
520
Chemical Kinetics
527
13.1 Catching Lizards 13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
527 528
468 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 470 Problems by Topic 471 Cumulative Problems 475 Challenge Problems 477 Conceptual Problems 478
12
12.8 Colloids
Measuring Reaction Rates 532
13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 470
533
Determining the Order of a Reaction 534 Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants 536
13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time
537
Half-Life, Lifetime, and Decay Time 542
Solutions
12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility
479
13.6 Reaction Mechanisms 485
486 489
494
of Chymotrypsin in Digestion
564 565
494
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 565 Key Concepts 565 Relationships 566 Key Skills 566
498
501
Vapour Pressure Lowering 501 Vapour Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute 504 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation 507
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Antifreeze in Frogs
Strong Electrolytes and Vapour Pressure 513 Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions 514
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xii
Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 567 Problems by Topic 567 Cumulative Problems 573 Challenge Problems 576 Conceptual Problems 577
14
Chemical Equilibrium
567
578
14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium 14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium 14.3 The Expression for the Equilibrium Constant 510
Osmotic Pressure 510
12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
558
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role
Molarity 495 Molality 496 Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume 496 Mole Fraction and Mole Percent 498
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapour Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure
13.7 Catalysis Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis 559 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 561
The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids 490 Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water 491
12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Lake Nyos
552
Rate Laws for Elementary Steps 553 Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws 553 The Steady-State Approximation 555
Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration 488
12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
545
Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy 548 The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor 550
479 481
Nature’s Tendency Toward Mixing: Entropy 481 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 482
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bisphenol A 12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation
13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
512
579 580 582
Relating Kp and Kc 582 The Unitless Thermodynamic Equilibrium Constant 584 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids 585
14.4 The Equilibrium Constant (K )
587
Units of Equilibrium Constants 587 The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant 587
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xiii
CO N T E N T S
Relationships Between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation 588
15.9 Polyprotic Acids
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Life and Equilibrium 14.5 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Quantities 14.6 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change 14.7 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
589
591 594 596
Finding Partial Pressures or Concentrations at Equilibrium Amounts When We Know the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Amounts of the Reactants and Products 596 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Know the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures 597 Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems 601
14.8 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
EXERCISES Review Questions 614 Problems by Topic 615 Cumulative Problems 619 Challenge Problems 620 Conceptual Problems 621
614
622 622 623 625
The Arrhenius Definition 625 The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 626
628
631 633
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity 635 pOH and Other p Scales 636
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ulcers 15.7 Finding 3H3O + 4, 3OH - 4, and pH of Acid or Base Solutions
637
638
648
Cations as Weak Acids 653 Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 654
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xiii
16
672
Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
679
16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze 16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
680 681
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution 682 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation 683 Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution 686 Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid 689
16.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
691
Relative Amounts of Acid and Base 691 Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base 691 Buffer Range 692 Human Blood Buffer Capacity 694
693
694
The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 694 The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 699 The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 704 The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid 704 Indicators: pH-Dependent Colours 705
16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant
708
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Hard Water
649
710
Ksp and Relative Solubility 711 The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 711 The Effect of an Uncommon Ion on Solubility (Salt Effect) 713 The Effect of pH on Solubility 713
16.6 Precipitation
Anions as Weak Bases 649
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: What’s in My Antacid?
669 Key Equations and
Ksp and Molar Solubility 708
Strong Acids 638 Weak Acids 638 Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid 643 Mixtures of Acids 644 Finding the [OH-] and pH of Basic Solutions 646
15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 669 Key Concepts 669 Relationships 670 Key Skills 671
16.4 Titrations and pH Curves
Strong Bases 631 Weak Bases 631
15.6 Autoionization of Water and pH
666
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Buffer Effectiveness in
Strong Acids 628 Weak Acids 629 The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka) 630
15.5 Base Solutions
662
EXERCISES Review Questions 672 Problems by Topic 672 Cumulative Problems 675 Challenge Problems 677 Conceptual Problems 678 612
15.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)
15.11 Strengths of Acids and Bases and Molecular Structure
Effects of Acid Rain 667 Acid Rain Legislation 668
605
15.1 Heartburn 15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 15.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases
661
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids 661 Cations That Act as Lewis Acids 662
15.12 Acid Rain
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 612 Key Concepts 612 Key Equations and Relationships 613 Key Skills 613
Acids and Bases
15.10 Lewis Acids and Bases
Binary Acids 663 Electron Affinity of Y 663 Bond Strength 663 The Combined Effect of Electron Affinity and Bond Strength 664 Oxyacids 664 Amine Bases 666
The Effect of Changing the Amount of Reactant or Product on Equilibrium 605 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium 608 The Effect of Changing the Pressure by Adding an Inert Gas 609 The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium 609
15
656
Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions 657 Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution 659
714
Selective Precipitation 716
16.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis
717
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xiv
CO NT ENTS
Group A: Insoluble Chlorides 719 Group B: AcidInsoluble Sulphides 719 Group C: Base-Insoluble Sulphides and Hydroxides 719 Group D: Insoluble Phosphates 719 Group E: Alkali Metals and NH4+ 719
16.8 Complex–Ion Equilibria
EXERCISES Review Questions 773 Problems by Topic 773 Cumulative Problems 776 Challenge Problems 778 Conceptual Problems 779
720
18
The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility 722 The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides 723 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 724 Key Concepts 725 Relationships 725 Key Skills 725
724 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 726 Problems by Topic 727 Cumulative Problems 732 Challenge Problems 733 Conceptual Problems 733
17
Gibbs Energy and Thermodynamics
726
780
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid 18.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
781 781 784
18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
788
Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation– Reduction Reaction 793 Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid 796
735 736 737
Entropy 739 The Entropy Change Associated with a Change in State 743
17.3 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings
748 748
The Effect of Δ r H, Δ r S, and T on Spontaneity 750
17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ rS ∘
752
Standard Molar Entropies (S ∘ ) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 753
17.7 Gibbs Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating Δ rG ∘
757
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Making a
17.8 Gibbs Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship Between Δ rG ∘ and Δ rG
760
763
The Gibbs Energy Change of a Reaction Under Nonstandard Conditions 764 ∘
17.9 Gibbs Energy and Equilibrium: Relating Δ rG to the Equilibrium Constant (K )
766
The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant 768 771 Key Equations and
18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration
800
Cells in Human Nerve Cells
806
18.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
807
Dry-Cell Batteries 807 Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 808 Other Rechargeable Batteries 808 Fuel Cells 810
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Lithium Battery 811 18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity 811 Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 813 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 817
18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
Calculating Gibbs Energy Changes with Δ r G ∘ = Δ r H ∘ - T Δ r S ∘ 757 Calculating Δ rG ∘ with Tabulated Values of Gibbs Energies of Formation 759 Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous Calculating Δ rG ∘ for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Gibbs Energy for Each of the Steps 761 What Is Gibbs Energy? 762
796
The Relationship Between Δ rG° and E°cell 797 5 and K 799 The Relationship Between E cell Concentration Cells 804
744
17.4 Entropy Changes for Phase Transitions 17.5 Gibbs Energy
18.5 Cell Potential, Gibbs Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Concentration
The Temperature Dependence of ΔSsurr 745 Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 746
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xiv
Electrochemistry
Electrochemical Cell Notation 787
17.1 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 17.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 771 Key Concepts 771 Relationships 772 Key Skills 772
773
819
Preventing Corrosion 821 CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 821 Key Concepts 821 Relationships 822 Key Skills 823
821 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 823 Problems by Topic 824 Cumulative Problems 827 Challenge Problems 829 Conceptual Problems 829
19
Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
19.1 Medical Isotopes 19.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 19.3 Types of Radioactivity
823
830 830 831 832
Alpha (a) Decay 833 Beta (b) Decay 834 Gamma (g) Ray Emission 835 Positron Emission 835 Electron Capture 835
19.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
837
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xv
CO N T E N T S
Magic Numbers 839
Radioactive Decay Series 839
19.5 Detecting Radioactivity 19.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
840 841
The Integrated Rate Law 842
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Uranium Isotopes and the CANDU Reactor 843 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts 844 Uranium/Lead Dating 846
19.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
847
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity 849
19.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy 19.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 19.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements 19.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life
853 854 856
Acute Radiation Damage 856 Increased Cancer Risk 856 Genetic Defects 856 Measuring Radiation Exposure 856
19.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
858
Diagnosis in Medicine 858 Radiotherapy in Medicine 859 Other Applications 859
Organic Chemistry I: Structures
899
EXERCISES Review Questions 901 Problems by Topic 902 Cumulative Problems 904 Challenge Problems 905 Conceptual Problems 906
901
21
Organic Chemistry II: Reactions
908
21.1 Discovering New Drugs 21.2 Organic Acids and Bases
909 909
The Range of Organic Acidities 909 Inductive Effects: Withdrawal of Electron Density 911 Resonance Effects: Charge Delocalization in the Conjugate Base 912 Acidic Hydrogen Atoms Bonded to Carbon 913 Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry 913 Acid and Base Reagents 914
21.3 Oxidation and Reduction
862
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Hydrogen and the Oil Sands 21.4 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions at Saturated Carbon
916
Redox Reactions 917
866
Perceived Difference Between Organic and Inorganic
20.3 Hydrocarbons
867 867
919
920
20.4 Functional Groups
868
869
926
The E1 Mechanism 927 The E2 Mechanism 928 Elimination Versus Substitution 928
21.6 Electrophilic Additions to Alkenes
928
Other Addition
21.7 Nucleophilic Additions to Aldehydes and Ketones
930
Addition of Alcohols 930 The Grignard Reaction 931
21.8 Nucleophilic Substitutions of Acyl Compounds 21.9 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions 21.10 Polymerization 875
Halides 876 Amines 876 Alcohols 877 Ethers 878 Carbonyls–Aldehydes and Ketones 878 The Carboxylic Acid Family 879
20.5 Constitutional Isomerism 20.6 Stereoisomerism I: Conformational Isomerism
21.5 Elimination Reactions
Hydrohalogenation 928 Reactions 929
Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures 869 Types of Hydrocarbons 872 Alkanes 872 Alkenes 873 Alkynes 873 Conjugated Alkenes and Aromatics 874
933 937 938
Step-Growth Polymers 939 Addition Polymers 939
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Kevlar
881 882
Conformational Isomerism: Rotation About Single Bonds 882 Ring Conformations of Cycloalkanes 884
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xv
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 899 Key Concepts 899 Key Equations and Relationships 900 Types of Isomerism 901 Key Skills 901
The SN1 Mechanism 920 The SN2 Mechanism 922 Factors Affecting Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 923
20.1 Fragrances and Odours 20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Vitalism and the
20.7 Stereoisomerism II: Configurational Isomerism
893
893
Using the Molecular Formula: The Index of Hydrogen Deficiency 893 Spectroscopic Methods for Structure Determination 895
860 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 862 Problems by Topic 862 Cumulative Problems 864 Challenge Problems 865 Conceptual Problems 865
20
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Anesthetics and Alcohol 20.8 Structure Determination
850
Mass Defect 851
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 860 Key Concepts 860 Relationships 861 Key Skills 861
Cis–Trans Isomerism in Alkenes 886 Enantiomers: Chirality 889 Absolute Configurations 891
885
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 941 Key Concepts 942 Relationships 943 Key Skills 944
940 941 Key Equations and
EXERCISES Review Questions 944 Problems by Topic 945 Cumulative Problems 951 Challenge Problems 952 Conceptual Problems 953
944
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xvi
CO NT ENTS
22
Biochemistry
954
22.1 Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin 22.2 Lipids Fatty Acids 955 Lipids 958
Fats and Oils 957
954 955
960
22.4 Proteins and Amino Acids
965
970
EXERCISES 1018 Review Questions 1018 Problems by Topic 1018 Cumulative Problems 1020 Challenge Problems 1021 Conceptual Problems 1021
973
The Basic Structure of Nucleic Acids 973 The Genetic Code 975
22.7 DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis
977
DNA Replication and the Double Helix 977 Protein Synthesis 978
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Human Genome Project
979
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 980 Key Concepts 980
980 Key Skills 981
EXERCISES Review Questions 981 Problems by Topic 982 Cumulative Problems 985 Challenge Problems 986 Conceptual Problems 987
Chemistry of the Nonmetals
23.1 Insulated Nanowires 23.2 The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties
981
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xvi
Carbon Oxides 1001
Metals and Metallurgy
24.1 Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity 24.2 The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals 24.3 Metallurgical Processes
1022 1023 1023 1025
Separation 1025 Pyrometallurgy 1026 Hydrometallurgy 1026 Electrometallurgy 1027 Powder Metallurgy 1028
24.4 Metal Structures and Alloys
1028
989 989
990
994
997
1034
Titanium 1034 Chromium 1035 Manganese 1036 Cobalt 1036 Copper 1037 Nickel 1038 Zinc 1038
988
Elemental Boron 994 Boron–Halogen Compounds: Trihalides 995 Boron–Oxygen Compounds 996 Boron–Hydrogen Compounds: Boranes 996
23.5 Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates
Key Skills 1018
24.5 Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals
Quartz and Glass 990 Aluminosilicates 991 Individual Silicate Units, Silicate Chains, and Silicate Sheets 991
23.4 Boron and Its Remarkable Structures
24
1017
Alloys 1029 Substitutional Alloys 1029 Alloys with Limited Solubility 1031 Interstitial Alloys 1032
Atomic Size and Types of Bonds 989
23.3 Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth’s Crust
1014
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Key Terms 1017 Key Concepts 1017
Secondary Structure 971 Tertiary Structure 971 Quaternary Structure 972
22.6 Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins
23.9 Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity
969
Primary Structure 969
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Essential Amino Acids
1011
Elemental Sulphur 1011 Hydrogen Sulphide and Metal Sulphides 1012 Sulphur Dioxide 1013 Sulphuric Acid 1013
Elemental Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid 1015 Elemental Chlorine 1016 Halogen Oxides 1016
Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins 965 Peptide Bonding Between Amino Acids 967
22.5 Protein Structure
1009
23.8 Sulphur: A Dangerous but Useful Element 959
Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and Disaccharides 961 Complex Carbohydrates 963
Carbon 997 Carbides 1000 Carbonates 1001
23.7 Oxygen Elemental Oxygen 1009 Uses for Oxygen 1010 Oxides 1010 Ozone 1010
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Dietary Fat: The 22.3 Carbohydrates
1002
Elemental Nitrogen and Phosphorus 1002 Nitrogen Compounds 1004 Phosphorus Compounds 1007
Other
Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
23
23.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 1039 Key Terms 1039 Key Concepts 1039 Key Equations and Relationships 1039 Key Skills 1039 EXERCISES 1040 Review Questions 1040 Problems by Topic 1040 Cumulative Problems 1041 Challenge Problems 1042 Conceptual Problems 1042
25
Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
25.1 The Colours of Rubies and Emeralds 25.2 Electron Configurations of Transition Metals Electron Configurations 1045 States 1045
25.3 Coordination Compounds
1043 1044 1044
Oxidation
1046
1/26/13 1:17 AM
CO N T E N T S
Naming Coordination Compounds 1049
25.4 Structure and Isomerization Structural Isomerism 1051
B Logarithms C Quadratic Equations D Graphs
1051 Stereoisomerism 1051
25.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
1055
Ligand Field Theory 1055 Octahedral Complexes 1055 The Colour of Complex Ions and Ligand Field Strength 1056 Magnetic Properties 1058 Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes 1059
25.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds
1060
Chelating Agents 1060 Chemical Analysis 1060 Colouring Agents 1060 Biomolecules 1061
Appendix II: Useful Data A Atomic Colours B Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25°C C Aqueous Equilibrium Constants D Standard Electrode Potentials at 25°C E Vapour Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
xvii A-3 A-4 A-5 A-7 A-7 A-7 A-12 A-15 A-15
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 1063 Key Terms 1063 Key Concepts 1063 Key Equations and Relationships 1064 Key Skills 1064
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises
A-17
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
A-57
EXERCISES 1064 Review Questions 1064 Problems by Topic 1065 Cumulative Problems 1066 Challenge Problems 1067 Conceptual Problems 1067
Glossary
G-1
Credits
C-1
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A Scientific Notation
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xvii
Index
I-1
A-1 A-1
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Preface To the Student As you begin this course, think about your reasons for enrolling in it. Why are you taking general chemistry? Why are you pursuing a university or college education at all? If you are like most students taking general chemistry, part of your answer is probably that this course is required for your major or you are pursuing your education so that you can get a job some day. Although these are both good reasons, we think there is a better one. The primary reason for an education is to prepare you to live a good life. You should understand chemistry—not for what it can get you—but for what it can do for you. Understanding chemistry is an important source of happiness and fulfillment. Understanding chemistry helps you to live life to its fullest for two basic reasons. The first is intrinsic: through an understanding of chemistry, you gain a powerful appreciation for just how rich and extraordinary the world really is. For example, one of the most important ideas in science is that the behaviour of matter is determined by the properties of molecules and atoms. With this knowledge, we have been able to study the substances that compose the world around us and explain their behaviour by reference to particles so small that they can hardly be imagined. If you have never realized the remarkable sensitivity of the world we can see to the world we cannot, you have missed out on a fundamental truth about our universe. The second reason is extrinsic: understanding chemistry makes you a more informed citizen—it allows you to engage with many of the issues of our day. Scientific literacy helps you understand and discuss in a meaningful way important issues from the development of the oil sands in Alberta (Chapter 6) to how the production of pharmaceuticals and personal care products affects our environment and our bodies (Chapter 12). In other words, understanding chemistry makes you a deeper and richer person and makes your country and the world a better place to live. These reasons have been the foundation of education from the very beginnings of civilization. So this is why we think you should take this course and why we wish you the best as you embark on the journey to understand the world around you at the molecular level. The rewards are well worth the effort.
The Strengths of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is first and foremost a student-oriented book. The main goal of the book is to motivate students and get them to achieve at the highest possible level. As we all know, many students take general chemistry because it is a requirement; they do not see the connection between chemistry and their lives or their intended careers. Chemistry: A Molecular Approach strives to make those connections consistently and effectively. Unlike other books, which often teach chemistry as something that happens only in the laboratory or in industry, this book teaches chemistry in the context
of relevance. It shows students why chemistry is important to them, to their future careers, and to their world. Second, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a pedagogically driven book. In seeking to develop problem-solving skills, a consistent approach is applied (Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check), usually in a two- or three-column format. In the twocolumn format, the left column shows the student how to analyze the problem and devise a solution strategy. It also lists the steps of the solution and explains the rationale for each one, while the right column shows the implementation of each step. In the three-column format, the left column outlines the general procedure for solving an important category of problems that is then applied to two side-by-side examples. This strategy allows students to see both the general pattern and the slightly different ways in which the procedure may be applied in differing contexts. The aim is to help students understand both the concept of the problem (through the formulation of an explicit conceptual plan for each problem) and the solution to the problem. Third, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a visual book. Wherever possible, images are used to deepen the student’s insight into chemistry. In developing chemical principles, multipart images help to show the connection between everyday processes visible to the unaided eye and what atoms and molecules are actually doing. Many of these images have three parts: macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic. This combination helps students to see the relationships between the formulas they write down on paper (symbolic), the world they see around them (macroscopic), and the atoms and molecules that compose that world (molecular). In addition, most figures are designed to teach rather than just to illustrate. They include annotations and labels intended to help the student grasp the most important processes and the principles that underlie them. The resulting images are rich with information but also uncommonly clear and quickly understood. Fourth, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a “big picture” book. At the beginning of each chapter, a short paragraph helps students to see the key relationships between the different topics they are learning. A focused and concise narrative helps make the basic ideas of every chapter clear to the student. Interim summaries are provided at selected spots in the narrative, making it easier to grasp (and review) the main points of important discussions. And to make sure that students never lose sight of the forest for the trees, each chapter includes several Conceptual Connections, which ask them to think about concepts and solve problems without doing any math. The idea is for students to learn the concepts, not just plug numbers into equations to churn out the right answer. Finally, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a book that delivers the depth of coverage faculty want. We do not have to cut corners and water down the material in order to get our students interested. We simply have to meet them where they are, challenge them to the highest level of achievement, and then support them with enough pedagogy to allow them to succeed.
The Canadian Edition Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, by Nivaldo J. Tro, is widely used in general chemistry courses at colleges and universities across North America. So, why do we need a Canadian
xviii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xviii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
P RE FACE
edition? The short answer is that general chemistry courses in Canada are different from those in the United States. First-year chemistry curricula in Canada are generally at a higher level than what is seen south of the border. There is a need for a strong chemistry textbook that serves Canadian general chemistry courses. The Canadian adaptation of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach drew very heavily on feedback from professors and instructors across Canada. As the Canadian authors, we took the reviews and consultations very seriously and did our best to adapt Tro’s textbook accordingly. In general terms, the adaptation involved making the following changes. International Conventions on Units, Symbols, and Nomenclature The field of chemistry is communicated according to conventions that are determined by the broader international chemistry community, through the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPAC continually releases recommendations on chemical nomenclature, definitions, symbols, and units. IUPAC recommendations are not static; they may evolve over time as new information comes to light. Although many textbooks state that they follow the recommendations of the IUPAC, you will find that the Canadian edition of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach scrupulously follows IUPAC recommendations for chemical names and symbols, nomenclature, and conventions for symbols and units in measurements. In the case of chemical nomenclature, there are a number of non-IUPAC chemical names that are so common that we have to include them along with the IUPAC recommended name. S.I. units of measurement are used exclusively. Imperial units such as the gallon, pound, and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature have not been used in modern science for over a generation. IUPAC recommended defining standard pressure as 1 bar (or 100 kPa) back in 1982. This is the standard that has been adopted by chemists worldwide and is almost exclusive in second-year physical chemistry texts. Only in first-year textbooks does the atmosphere still linger as standard pressure. In this text, standard pressure is the IUPAC-recommended bar. Students will see pressure in various units, but we make little use of the atmosphere. When dealing with ideal gases, the most common value of R is 0.08314 L bar mol–1 K–1. In thermodynamics, we have adopted the recommended notation for enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs energy changes, placing subscripts for changes after the delta sign rather than after H, S, or G. For example, the standard reaction enthalpy is expressed 5 . This is a subtle change that matters. as Δ r H 5 rather than ΔH rxn The type of change ( Δ ) is marked on the Δ symbol (reaction, Δ r; formation, Δ f; and so on), rather than the type of thermodynamic quantity. We understand that this notation is not used everywhere. However, we believe that students should use standard notation throughout their education. Students who continue in chemistry or other sciences will eventually come across the standard notation in physical chemistry textbooks and in places like the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and the NIST Chemistry Webbook (http://webbook.nist.gov/). Furthermore, thermodynamic quantities like Δ r H 5 are always molar quantities and have the units kJ mol–1, as recommended by IUPAC. Exclusive use of IUPAC-recommended units keeps students from getting into unit troubles when doing thermodynamic calculations.
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xix
xix
Explicitly, we have provided the distinctions and connections between the unitless thermodynamic equilibrium constant, Keq or simply K, and the phenomenological equilibrium constants, Kc and KP , which can have units in terms of concentration and pressure, respectively, again in accordance with IUPAC recommendations. This is done in the most basic of terms, assuming that gases and solutions are ideal so that their partial pressures and concentrations are assumed to be numerically equivalent to their activities, setting up for a more rigorous treatment in second year analytical and physical chemistry courses. Following recommendations set out by the IUPAC ensures that we speak a common language—and teach a common language. Otherwise, students who go on in chemistry have to convert from the language learned in first year as soon as the very next year, when they take their first physical chemistry course. Current Theories We have updated the text so that the most current, consensus scientific view is described. This is most notable in the case of bonding theory and the so-called expanded octet. In this case, recent evidence shows that the d orbitals have a negligible contribution to bonding, which means that full sp3d and sp3d2 hybridizations should no longer be included in bonding theories, even though this idea continues to appear in general chemistry textbooks. This Canadian edition reflects the most current understanding of chemical phenomenon, at the first-year level. Organic Chemistry The coverage of organic chemistry has been expanded to two chapters, reflecting the curricula in many Canadian universities, which provide additional organic chemistry coverage in first-year chemistry. The first organic chemistry chapter covers structure and bonding, stereochemistry, and structure determination. The second chapter covers organic reactivity, and it is organized according to reaction mechanisms. Canadian Context Naturally, a Canadian edition will include Canadian examples. In some places, the Canadian content is fun, like the hockey goalie’s “Quantum mechanical five hole” in Chapter 7. In other places, Canadian chemistry examples are serious and important, like the chemistry of the oil sands. Wherever Canadian content appears in this edition, it is there to promote student engagement. This book is meant for the Canadian student. End-of-Chapter Problems One of the first things that professors consider when choosing a chemistry textbook is the quality of end-of-chapter problems. This is because, to learn chemistry, students need to work through meaningful exercises and problems. Tro’s Chemistry: A Molecular Approach has extensive, high-quality problems. In the Canadian edition, some of the more elementary problems have been replaced with more difficult ones, and a total of 120 more end-of-chapter questions have been added. First-year chemistry courses are perhaps the most important courses in chemistry programs, because they lay the foundation for all higher level courses. First-year courses introduce students to the language and discipline of chemistry, and some concepts are not touched on again in the entire undergraduate curriculum. Indeed, many Ph.D. comprehensive questions fall back to ideas learned in first year. This book was prepared with
1/26/13 1:17 AM
xx
PREFACE
the full undergraduate curriculum in mind. If you are a student, we hope that the Canadian edition of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach helps you succeed in chemistry. We encourage you to make use of all of the features in this book that are designed to help you learn. If you are a professor, it is our hope that this textbook provides you with the strong content you need to teach first-year chemistry in a way that is true to our discipline.
Supplements For the Instructor MasteringChemistry® is the best adaptive-learning online homework and tutorial system. Instructors can create online assignments for their students by choosing from a wide range of items, including end-of-chapter problems and researchenhanced tutorials. Assignments are automatically graded with up-to-date diagnostic information, helping instructors pinpoint where students struggle either individually or as a class as a whole. Instructor resources are password protected and available for download from the Pearson online catalogue at www. pearsoncanada.ca/. For your convenience, many of these resources are also available on the Instructor’s Resource DVD-ROM (ISBN 9780133060430). Instructor’s Solutions Manual This manual contains step-bystep solutions to all complete, end-of-chapter exercises. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual to accompany the Canadian edition has been extensively revised and checked for accuracy. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available on the IRDVD and can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Instructor’s Resource Manual Organized by chapter, this useful guide includes objectives, lecture outlines, and references to figures and solved problems, as well as teaching tips. The Instructor’s Resource Manual can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. TestGen and Test Item File For your convenience, our testbank is available in two formats. TestGen is a computerized testbank containing a broad variety of multiple-choice, short answer, and more complex problem questions. Questions can be searched and identified by question type or level of difficulty. Each question has been checked for accuracy and is available in the latest version of TestGen software. This software package allows instructors to custom design, save, and generate classroom tests. The test program permits instructors to edit, add, or delete questions from the testbank; edit existing graphics and create new ones; analyze test results; and organize a database of tests and student results. This software allows for greater flexibility and ease of use. It provides many options for organizing and displaying tests, along with search and sort features. The same questions can also be found in a Test Item File available in Word format. Both of these versions are included on the IRDVD. The TestGen testbank can also be downloaded from the online catalogue. PowerPoint® Presentations PowerPoint® lecture slides provide an outline to use in a lecture setting, presenting definitions,
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xx
key concepts, and figures from the textbook. The textbook’s worked examples and a selection of practice problems are also provided in PowerPoint® format. These PowerPoint® slides can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Questions for Classroom Response Systems Another set of PowerPoint® slides provide sample exercises and questions to be used with Classroom Response Systems. These questions can be found on the IRDVD or can be downloaded from the online catalogue. Image Libraries All images, figures, and tables in the textbook are provided in PowerPoint® format. The images, figures, and tables are also available in a separate image library in jpeg or gif format. The Image Libraries are available on the IRDVD or through the online catalogue. CourseSmart for Instructors CourseSmart goes beyond traditional expectations, providing instant, online access to the textbooks and course materials you need at a lower cost for students. And even as students save money, you can save time and hassle with a digital eTextbook that allows you to search for the most relevant content at the very moment you need it. Whether it’s evaluating textbooks or creating lecture notes to help students with difficult concepts, CourseSmart can make life a little easier. See how when you visit www.coursesmart.com/instructors. Technology Specialists Pearson’s Technology Specialists work with faculty and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources by assisting in the integration of a variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your local Pearson Education sales representative can provide you with more details on this service program.
For the Student MasteringChemistry® provides you with two learning systems: an extensive self-study area with an interactive eBook and the most widely used chemistry homework and tutorial system (if your instructor chooses to make online assignments part of your course). Pearson eText The integration of Pearson eText within MasteringChemistry® gives students with new books easy access to the electronic text when they are logged into MasteringChemistry®. Pearson eText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering powerful new functionality for students and instructors. Users can create notes, highlight text in different colours, create bookmarks, zoom, view in single-page or twopage format, and more. Selected Solutions Manual This manual for students contains complete, step-by-step solutions to selected odd-numbered endof-chapter problems. The Selected Solutions Manual to accompany the Canadian edition has been extensively revised, with all problems checked for accuracy.
1/26/13 1:17 AM
P RE FACE
Acknowledgments During the development of this book, we obtained many helpful suggestions and comments from colleagues from across the country. We sincerely thank the following instructors who provided written reviews of the manuscript in progress: Jennifer Au, Kwantlen Polytechnic University Jeff Banks, Acadia University Alex Brown, University of Alberta Murray Carmichael, University of Alberta François Caron, Laurentian University Alice Cherestes, McGill University Shadi Dalili, University of Toronto, Scarborough Mauro Di Renzo, Vanier College Daniel Donnecke, Camosun College Phil Dutton, University of Windsor Nicholas Duxin, Dawson College Noel George, Ryerson University Dara Gilbert, University of Waterloo Douglas Goltz, University of Winnipeg Robert A. Gossage, Ryerson University Michael Hempstead, York University Robert Hilts, MacEwan University Cristen Hucaluk, University of Ontario Institute of Technology Lori A. Jones, University of Guelph Krystyna Koczanski, University of Manitoba Pippa Lock, McMaster University Matthew Lukeman, Acadia University Celeste MacConnachie, Mount Royal University Arthur Mar, University of Alberta Jaime Martell, Cape Breton University Andrew McWilliams, Ryerson University Hameed A. Mirza, York University Ed Neeland, University of British Columbia Suzanne Pearce, Kwantlen Polytechnic University Mark Quirie, Algonquin College Valerie Reeves, University of New Brunswick Bryan Rowsell, Red Deer College Effiette Sauer, University of Toronto, Scarborough David Staples, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology Jackie Stewart, University of British Columbia James Tait, University of New Brunswick Matthew Thompson, Trent University Stephen Urquhart, University of Saskatchewan Rashmi Venkateswaran, University of Ottawa Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, Langara College James Xidos, University of Manitoba Yanguo Yang, Langara College
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxi
xxi
We would also like to thank Patricia Aroca-Ouellette and her students at Langara College who class-tested our two chapters covering organic chemistry during the Fall semester of 2011. Their feedback and encouragement were greatly appreciated. We acknowledge Prof. Dietmar Kennepohl (Athabasca University) and Dr. Nicole Sandblom (University of Calgary), Dr. Neil Anderson (Onyx Pharmaceuticals), Drs. Chris Flinn, Bob Helleur, Karen Hattenhauer, and Chris Kozak, (Memorial University), Mr. Nicholas Ryan (Memorial University), and Drs. Lucio Gelmini and Robert Hilts (MacEwan University) for helpful discussions and insightful comments. Dr. Ian Hunt of the University of Calgary worked with us in the early development of the organic chemistry chapters. He provided sage advice on the organization of these chapters and made numerous suggestions on how to present organic chemistry in a way that is both rigorous and accessible to the firstyear student. We would like to thank the University of Manitoba chemistry faculty members who met with us to discuss the development of this book. Peter Budzelaar, John Cullen, Francois Gauvin, Krystyna Koczanski, Elena Smirnova, and James Xidos gave us a number of helpful suggestions over the course of a very enriching discussion. We would like to thank our wives Lisa and Tanya for their encouragement and their continuing patience during all the evenings and weekends we spent working on this book when we could have been with our families. Finally, we would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the many members of the team at Pearson Canada and Jouve who were involved throughout the writing and production process: Cathleen Sullivan, Executive Editor; John Polanszky, Senior Developmental Editor; Rachel Thompson, Project Manager; Ben Zaporozan, Media Content Editor; Anthony Leung, Senior Designer. Travis D. Fridgen Lawton E. Shaw
1/26/13 1:17 AM
C
hemistry is relevant to every process occurring around you, at every second. The authors help you understand this connection by weaving specific, vivid examples throughout the text that tell the story of chemistry. Every chapter begins with a brief story that illustrates how chemistry is relevant to all people, at every moment.
8
Are you interested in knowing how nerve cells transmit signals?
Periodic Properties of the Elements
Beginning students of chemistry often think of the science as a mere collection of disconnected data to be memorized by brute force. Not at all! Just look at it properly and everything hangs together and makes sense.
See Chapter 8 to learn why periodic properties are essential to understanding this process.
—Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission
In order for a nerve cell to transmit a signal, sodium and potassium ions must flow in opposite directions through specific ion channels in the cell membrane.
289
8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 289 8.3 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table 291
REAT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE occur not only when a scientist sees
G
8.4 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 295 8.5 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge 296 8.6 Ionic Radii
seen in a new way. In other words, great scientists often see patterns
4
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemistry professor, saw a pattern in the properties
of elements. Mendeleev’s insight led to the periodic table, arguably the single most
303
8.7 Ionization Energy
something new, but also when a scientist sees what everyone else has
where others have seen only disjointed facts. Such was the case in 1869 when
306
important tool for the chemist. Recall that scientists devise theories that explain
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character 310
the underlying reasons for observations. If we think of Mendeleev’s periodic table as a compact way to summarize a large number of observations, then quantum
8.9 Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behaviour: The Alkali M t l H l d N bl
mechanics (covered in Chapter 7) is the theory that explains the underlying reasons
Recipe NaHC Na + +
What about the chemistry of everyday life?
When we decode a cookbook, every one of us is a practicing chemist. Cooking is really the oldest, most basic application of physical and chemical forces to natural materials.
H+
CO + 2 H
2O
—Arthur E. Grosser
M08_TRO1785_00_SE_C08.indd 288
Chapter 4 illustrates the role chemistry plays in cuisine, from baking a cake to why lemons go well with fish.
O3 +
1/12/13 3:34 AM
4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine
101
4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 102 4.3 Solutions and Solubility
T
HE AMOUNT OF PRODUCT FORMED IN A CHEMICAL REACTION is related to
4.4 Precipitation Reactions
the amount of reactant that reacts. This concept makes sense intuitively,
4.5 Acid–Base Reactions
but how do we describe and understand this relationship more fully?
4.66 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 115
The second half of this chapter focuses on chemical stoichiometry—the numerical
105 109 111
relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
44.7 .77 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Is Produced? 121
First we will learn how to write balanced chemical equations for chemical
44.8 .88 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 123
reactions. We will also describe some general types of chemical reactions. You have probably witnessed many of these types of reactions in your daily life because they are so common. Have you ever mixed baking soda with vinegar and observed
44.9 .99 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 128
Solutions
the subsequent bubbling? Or have you ever noticed the hard water deposits that f
9
l
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory
Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
M04_TRO1785_00_SE_C04.indd 101
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavour to make the mesh ever finer and finer.
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
The AIDS drug Indinavir—shown here as the missing piece in a puzzle depicting the protein HIV-protease—was developed with the help of chemical bonding theories.
9.4 Ionic Bonding and Lattice Energies 328 9.5 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction to Lewis Structures of Molecules 334 9.6 Bond Energies, Bond Lengths, and Bond Vibrations 338 9.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 344 9.8 Resonance and Formal Charge 349 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Drawing Lewis Structures for Odd-Electron Species and Incomplete Octets 354 9.10 Lewis Structures for Hypercoordinate Compounds 356 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model 358
? Th
i
h
bj
f h fi
12
f
One molecule of nonsaline substance (held in the solvent) dissolved in 100 molecules of any volatile liquid decreases the vapour pressure of this liquid by a nearly constant fraction, nearly 0.0105.
10
1/16/13 9:16 AM
Drinking seawater causes dehydration because seawater draws water out of body tissues.
—François-Marie Raoult (1830–1901) 12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 479 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility 481
W No theory ever solves all the puzzles with which it is confronted at a given time; nor are the solutions already achieved often perfect.
325
9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 327
fi
E LEARNED IN CHAPTER 1 that most of the matter we encounter is in the form of mixtures. In this chapter, we focus on homogeneous mixtures, known as solutions. Solutions are mixtures in which atoms
and molecules intermingle on the molecular and atomic scales. Some common
—Karl Popper (1902–1994)
9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 325
bi
examples of solutions include the ocean water we swim in, the gasoline we put into our cars, and the air we breathe. Why do solutions form? How are their properties different from the properties of the pure substances that compose them? As you read this chapter, keep in mind the great number of solutions that surround you at every moment, including those that exist within your own body.
12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation 486 12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility 489 12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration 494 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapour Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure 501 12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 512 12.8 Colloids 515
—Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)
C
HEMICAL BONDING IS AT THE HEART of chemistry. The bonding theories that we are about to examine are—as Karl Popper eloquently states in Similarities in the shapes of sugar and aspartame give both molecules the ability to stimulate a sweet taste sensation.
the above quote—nets cast to understand the world. In the next two
chapters, we will examine three theories with successively finer “meshes.” The
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 368
These examples make the material more accessible by contextualizing the chemistry and grounding it in the world you live in.
10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes 368
first is Lewis theory, a simple model of chemical bonding, which can be carried
I
N CHAPTER 9 , WE EXAMINED a simple model for chemical bonding called
out on the back of an envelope. With just a few dots, dashes, and chemical
Lewis theory. We saw how this model helps us to explain and predict the
symbols, Lewis theory can help us to understand and predict a myriad of chemical
combinations of atoms that form stable molecules. When we combine Lewis
observations. The second is valence bond theory, which treats electrons in a more
theory with the idea that valence electron groups repel one another—the basis of an
quantum-mechanical manner, but stops short of viewing them as belonging to the
approach known as VSEPR theory—we can predict the general shape of a molecule
entire molecule. The third is molecular orbital theory, essentially a full quantum-
from its Lewis structure. We address molecular shapes and their importance in
mechanical treatment of the molecule and its electrons as a whole. Molecular
the first part of this chapter. We then move on to explore two additional bonding
orbital theory has great predictive power, but at the expense of great complexity
theories—called valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory—that are
and intensive computational requirements. Which theory is “correct”? Remember
progressively more sophisticated, but at the cost of being more complex, than
that theories are models that help us understand and predict behaviour. All three of
Lewis theory. As you work through this chapter, our second on chemical bonding,
these theories are extremely useful, depending on exactly what aspect of chemical
10.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs 372 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries 377 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity 380
M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 479
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 384 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 386 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization 397
12/01/13 11:33 PM
keep in mind the importance of this topic. In our universe, elements join together
bonding we want to predict or understand.
to form compounds, and that makes many things possible, including our own existence.
324
M09_TRO1785_00_SE_C09.indd 324
367
1/16/13 10:23 AM
M10_TRO1785_00_SE_C10.indd 367
1/16/13 9:01 AM
xxii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxii
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Student Interest Throughout the narrative and in special boxed features, interesting descriptions of chemistry in the modern world demonstrate its importance.
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products TABLE 12.6
uent and Surface Water on the Detroit River in Windsor, Ontario 80 ng L-1 63 ng L-1
Surface water sites downstream of WSTP
4–8 ng L-1
Surface water measurements in other countries
1–140 ng L-1
Toxicity level for rainbow trout and algae
1.5–350 μg L-1
Triclosan is another PPCP known for its antimicrobial effects and is a common component in many consumer products such as hand soaps, cleaning supplies, dish detergents, toothpaste, socks, and bedding. In fact, according to Marketplace on CBC.ca, Health Canada has registered avoiding antibacterial products over concerns of antibacternd their way into our wastewater, and if not completely removed, they nd their way back to our water supply. Triclosan has been sh species from the Detroit River and Great Lakes [Alaee et al., 2003 M. Alaee,
ed, and many can be hazardous even though they are seemingly nontoxic. For lters such as 3-benzylidene camphor (3BC)— found in many PPCPs like sunscreen—protect us from exposure to UV light from the sun. These chemicals have been sh. Short-term exposure (a month) to 3BC has been shown to affect reprosh. Weak effects cant decrease were observed on fertility at 3 µg L-1 in fertility at 74 µg L-1, and a cessation of reproduction at lters 285 µg L-1 can bioaccumulate. This means that their concentrations build sh and other aquatic life to higher concentrations than in the surrounding water.
Blood pressure is the force within arteries that drives the circulation of blood throughout the body. Blood pressure in the body is analogous to water pressure in a plumbing system. Just as water pressure pushes water through the pipes to faucets and fixtures throughout a house, blood pressure pushes blood to muscles and other tissues throughout the body. However, unlike the water pressure in a plumbing system—which is typically nearly constant—our blood pressure varies with each heartbeat. When the heart muscle contracts, blood pressure increases; between contractions, it decreases. Systolic blood pressure is the peak pressure during a contraction, and diastolic blood pressure is the lowest pressure between contractions. Just as excessively high water pressure in a plumbing system can damage pipes, so too can high blood pressure in a circulatory system damage the heart and arteries, resulting in increased risk of stroke and heart attack. Medical professionals usually measure blood pressure with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer—an inflatable cuff equipped with a pressure gauge—and a stethoscope. The cuff is wrapped around the patient’s arm and inflated with air. As i i di h ff h i h ff i
▲ A doctor or a nurse typically measures blood pressure with an inflatable cuff that compresses the main artery in the arm. A stethoscope is used to listen for blood flowing through the artery with each heartbeat. throughout the day, a healthy (or normal) value is usually considered to be below 120 mmHg for systolic and below 80 mmHg for diastolic (Table 5.2). High blood pressure, also called hyper-
▲ Chemistry and Medicine boxes show applications relevant to biomedical and health-related topics.
▲
Scientists around the world have been concerned about trace drugs that could affect aquatic environments and eventually make their way to tap water. According to the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada and numerous leading scientists, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is one of the leading emerging issues in environmental chemistry. At least 80 PPCPs have uents from wastewater/sewage treatment plants (WSTPs) and surface waters worldwide. They include analgesics, antibiotics, antiepileptics, antidepressants, blood lipid regulators, and endocrine-disrupting compounds.
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE BLOOD PRESSURE
Chemistry and the Environment boxes relate chapter topics to current environmental and societal issues.
sh plasma from the Detroit River, Organohalog. Compd. 136 (2003), pp. 136–140]. It is toxic at -1 in rainbow trout. Little is known about the effects of exposure or ingestion of high concentrations of PPCPs on the environment or humans. Much research is currently being conducted cation in WSTP, lakes, soils, and at drinking water intakes.
▼ Chemistry In Your Day boxes demonstrate the importance of chemistry in everyday situations.
M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 149
Question With the aid of diagrams, explain why methanol (CH3OH) and water are completely miscible, while pentan-1-ol (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH) is only slightly soluble in water.
1/12/13 1:49 AM
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY Bisphenol A M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 498
12/01/13 11:34 PM
Polycarbonate plastics are clear and almost shatterproof polyBisphenol A mers that have been used to make many familiar consumer items such as baby bottles and water bottles. Polycarbonates are made O CH3 with a compound called bisphenol A, which has been used in the O O polymer industry for more than n CH3 half a century. Bisphenol A is used in many other consumer Polycarbonate products such as dental devices and coatings on the inside of food and beverage cans. Bisphenol A is also a suspected endocrine disruptor. That means it acts like hormones in the endocrine system. It interacts with hormone receptors, interfering with processes such as reproduction and normal development of tissues and organs by changing the chemistry that occurs inside and outside the cell. In 2008, Canada became the first country to ban baby bottles made with bisphenol A, listing it as a toxic substance. Bisphenol A (continued)
M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 485
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxiii
xxiii
12/01/13 11:34 PM
1/26/13 1:17 AM
Annotated Molecular Art Many illustrations have three parts: • • •
a macroscopic image (what you can see with your eyes) a molecular image (what the molecules are doing) a symbolic representation (how chemists represent the process with symbols and equations)
The goal is for you to connect what you see and experience (the macroscopic world) with the molecules responsible for that world, and with the way chemists represent those molecules. After all, this is what chemistry is all about. 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
2 H2O(g)
Symbolic representation
Hydrogen and oxygen react to form gaseous water.
O2
Molecular image H2 2 H2
+
O2
Macroscopic image
2 H2O
▲ FIGURE 4.10 Oxidation–Reduction Reaction The hydrogen in the balloon reacts with oxygen upon ignition to form gaseous water (which is dispersed in the flame).
M04_TRO1785_00_SE_C04.indd 115
▶ FIGURE 4.7 Precipitation of Lead(II) Iodide When a potassium iodide solution is mixed with a lead(II) nitrate solution, a yellow lead(II) iodide precipitate forms.
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) (soluble)
2 KNO3(aq) + (soluble)
(soluble)
PbI2(s) (insoluble)
1/16/13 9:17 AM
K+
2 KI(aq)
Annotations tell the story of the image concisely.
(soluble)
I−
+
NO3−
Pb(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+
Macroscopic image
Molecular image
(soluble)
K+
NO3−
2 KNO3(aq) (soluble)
+ PbI2
PbI2(s) (insoluble)
xxiv
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxiv
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Multipart Images Multipart Images make connections among graphical representations, molecular processes, and the macroscopic world.
NaCl(s) When sodium chloride is first added to water, sodium and chloride ions begin to dissolve into the water.
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
NaCl(s)
As the solution becomes more concentrated, some of the sodium and chloride ions can begin to recrystallize as solid sodium chloride.
NaCl(s)
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
When the rate of dissolution equals the rate of recrystallization, dynamic equilibrium has been reached.
Symbolic representation
Macroscopic image (a) Initial
Na+
NaCl(s)
n io n ut ol tio iss za D lli ta ys cr Re
n io ut n ol tio iss za D lli ta ys cr
Re
Cl−
Molecular image
NaCl(s)
Rate of dissolution > Rate of recrystallization
Rate of dissolution = Rate of recrystallization
(b) Dissolving
(c) Dynamic equilibrium
▲ FIGURE 12.9 Dissolution of NaCl
◀ FIGURE 11.10 Polar and Nonpolar Compounds Water and pentane do not mix because water molecules are polar and pentane molecules are nonpolar. C5H12(l) H2O(l)
Graphical representation M12_TRO1785_00_SE_C12.indd 490
12/01/13 11:34 PM
xxv
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxv
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Two-Column Example A consistent approach to problem solving is used throughout the book. 46
C h ap ter 2
Atoms and Elements
The left column explains how the problem is solved.
The molar mass of any element yields the conversion factor between mass (in grams) of that element and the amount (in moles) of that element. For carbon: 12.01 g C = 1 mol C or
12.01 g C 1 mol C
or
1 mol C 12.01 g C
We now have all the tools to count the number of atoms in a sample of an element by weighing it. First, obtain the mass of the sample. Then convert it to the amount in moles using the element’s molar mass. Finally, convert to number of atoms using Avogadro’s number. The conceptual plan for these kinds of calculations takes the following form: g element
mol element molar mass of element
The right column shows the implementation of the steps explained in the left column.
number of atoms Avogadro’s number
The next example demonstrates these conversions. Notice that numbers with large exponents, such as 6.022 * 1023, are unbelievably large. Twenty-two copper pennies contain 6.022 * 1023 or 1 mol of copper atoms, but
A four-part structure (“Sort, Strategize, Solve, Check”) provides you with a framework for analyzing and solving problems.
EXAMPLE 2.4 The Mole Concept: Converting from Mass to Moles and Number of Atoms Calculate the number of moles of copper atoms and the number of copper atoms that are in 3.10 g of copper. SORT You are given the mass of copper atoms and asked to find the number of moles of copper atoms and the number of copper atoms.
GIVEN: 3.10 g Cu FIND: Moles and numbers of Cu atoms
STRATEGIZE Convert between the mass of an element in grams and the number of moles of atoms of the element with the molar mass. Then convert from moles to the number of atoms using Avogadro’s number.
CONCEPTUAL PLAN
SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. Begin with 3.10 g Cu and multiply by the appropriate conversion factor to obtain the number of moles of copper.
SOLUTION Number of moles Cu:
Then multiply the number of moles by Avogadro’s number to arrive at the number of copper atoms.
Number of Cu atoms:
g Cu
mol Cu
Many problems are solved with a conceptual plan that provides a visual outline of the steps leading from the given information to the solution.
number of Cu atoms
1 mol Cu
6.022 × 1023 Cu atoms
63.55 g Cu
1 mol Cu
RELATIONSHIPS USED 63.55 g Cu = 1 mol Cu (molar mass of copper) 6.022 * 1023 = 1 mol (Avogadro’s number)
3.10 g Cu *
1 mol Cu = 4.88 * 10-2 mol Cu 63.55 g Cu
4.88 * 10-2 mol Cu *
6.022 * 1023 Cu atoms = 2.94 * 1022 Cu atoms 1 mol Cu
CHECK The answer (the number of copper atoms) is less than 6.022 * 1023 (one mole). This is consistent with the given mass of copper atoms, which is less than the molar mass of copper.
Every worked Example is followed by a “For Practice” problem that you can try to solve on your own. Answers to “For Practice” Problems are in Appendix IV.
FOR PRACTICE 2.4 How many carbon atoms are there in a 1.3-carat diamond? Diamonds are a form of pure carbon. (1 carat = 0.20 grams) FOR MORE PRACTICE 2.4 Calculate the mass of 2.25 * 1022 tungsten atoms.
M02_TRO5213_01_SE_C02.indd 46
xxvi
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxvi
1/19/13 9:34 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Three-Column Example Problem-Solving Procedure Boxes for important categories of problems enable you to see how the same reasoning applies to different problems.
3.4
65
Formulas and Names
The general procedure is shown in the left column.
The formula for the ionic compound composed of calcium and chlorine, however, is CaCl2 because Ca always forms 2+ cations and Cl always forms 1- anions in ionic compounds. In order for this compound to be charge-neutral, it must contain one Ca2 + cation for every two Cl - anions. Summarizing Ionic Compound Formulas ▶ Ionic compounds always contain positive and negative ions. ▶ In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of the positive ions (cations) must equal
the sum of the charges of the negative ions (anions). ▶ A formula reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of ions.
To write the formula for an ionic compound, follow the procedure in the left column in the following example. Two examples of how to apply the procedure are provided in the centre and right columns.
PROCEDURE FOR … Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
1. Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge followed by the symbol for the nonmetal anion and its charge. Obtain charges from the element’s group number in the periodic table (refer to Figure 2.12). 2. Adjust the subscript on each cation and anion to balance the overall charge. 3. Check that the sum of the charges of the cations equals the sum of the charges of the anions.
EXAMPLE 3.2 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
EXAMPLE 3.3 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Write a formula for the ionic compound that forms between aluminum and oxygen.
Write a formula for the ionic compound that forms between calcium and oxygen.
Al3 +
O2 -
Al3 +
O2 -
Al2 O3
Ca2 +
O2 -
Ca2 +
O2 -
Two worked examples, side by side, make it easy to see how differences are handled.
CaO
cations: 2(3 +) = 6 + anions: 3(2-) = 6 The charges balance.
cations: 2 + anions: 2 The charges balance.
FOR PRACTICE 3.2 Write a formula for the compound formed between potassium and sulfur.
FOR PRACTICE 3.3 Write a formula for the compound formed between aluminum and nitrogen.
Naming Ionic Compounds The first step in naming an ionic compound is to identify it as one. Ionic compounds are often composed of metals and nonmetals; any time you see a metal and one or more nonmetals together in a chemical formula, assume that you have an ionic compound. Table 3.2 gives names of common cations and anions. In the case of KBr, the name of the K + ion is potassium. For metals that form cations with only one charge, the name of the cation is the same as the metal. For metals that can form cations with different charges, the name of the cation is the name of the metal followed by the charge in roman numerals in brackets. Thus, Fe2 + is named iron(II) and Fe3 + is named iron(III). Many transition metals give ions with different charges (Figure 3.6 ▶). Names for monoatomic anions consist of the base name of the element followed by the suffix –ide. For example, the base name for bromine is brom, and the name of the Br - ion is bromide. The name of KBr is the name of the K + cation, followed by the name of the Br - anion: potassium bromide.
The name of the ionic compound is simply the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion.
Every worked Example is followed by one or more “For Practice” problems that you can try to solve on your own. Answers to “For Practice” Problems are in Appendix IV.
Main groups Transition elements
▲ FIGURE 3.6 Transition Elements Metals that can have different charges in different compounds are usually (but not always) found in the transition elements.
xxvii M03_TRO1785_00_SE_C03.indd 65
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxvii
1/16/13 8:17 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Key Concepts
End-of-Chapter Review Section
products. The general form for these types of calculations is often as follows: volume A S amount A (in moles) S amount B (in moles) S quantity of B (in desired units). In cases where the reaction is carried out at STP, the molar volume at STP (22.7 L = 1 mol) can be used to convert between volume in litres and amount in moles.
Pressure (5.1, 5.2)
The end-of-chapter review section helps you study the chapter’s concepts and skills in a systematic way that is ideal for test preparation. Approximately 120 new end-of-chapter problems have been added, most of these in the cumulative and challenge categories.
Gas pressure is the force per unit area that results from gas particles colliding with the surfaces around them. Pressure is measured in a number of units, including bar, mbar, mmHg, torr, Pa, psi, and atm.
The Simple Gas Laws (5.3) Kinetic Molecular Theory and Its Applications (5.8, 5.9)
The simple gas laws express relationships between pairs of variables when the other variables are held constant. Boyle’s law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Charles’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature. Avogadro’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the amount (in moles).
Kinetic molecular theory is a quantitative model for gases. The theory has three main assumptions: (1) the gas particles are negligibly small, (2) the average kinetic energy of a gas particle is proportional to the temperature in kelvin, and (3) the collision of one gas particle with another is completely elastic (the particles do not stick together). The gas laws all follow from the kinetic molecular theory. We can also use the theory to derive the expression for the root mean square velocity of gas particles. This velocity is inversely proportional to the molar mass of the gas, and therefore—at a given temperature—smaller gas particles are (on average) moving more quickly than larger ones. The kinetic molecular theory also allows us to predict the mean free path of a gas particle (the distance it travels between collisions) and relative rates of diffusion or effusion.
The Ideal Gas Law and Its Applications (5.4, 5.5) The ideal gas law, PV = nRT , gives the relationship among all four gas variables and contains the simple gas laws within it. We can use the ideal gas law to find one of the four variables given the other three. We can use it to calculate the molar volume of an ideal gas, which is 22.7 L at STP, and to calculate the density and molar mass of a gas.
Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures (5.6) Real Gases (5.10)
In a mixture of gases, each gas acts independently of the others so that any overall property of the mixture is the sum of the properties of the individual components. The pressure of any individual component is its partial pressure.
Real gases differ from ideal gases to the extent that they do not always fit the assumptions of kinetic molecular theory. These assumptions tend to break down at high pressures, where the volume is higher than predicted for an ideal gas because the particles are no longer negligibly small compared to the space between them. The assumptions also break down at low temperatures where the pressure is lower than predicted because the attraction between molecules combined with low kinetic energies causes partially inelastic collisions. The van der Waals equation predicts gas properties under nonideal conditions.
Gas Stoichiometry (5.7)
Key Terms Section 5.1
Section 5.3
Section 5.6
Section 5.9
pressure (145)
Boyle’s law (150) Charles’s law (153) Avogadro’s law (155)
mean free path (176) diffusion (176) effusion (176) Graham’s law of effusion (177)
ideal gas law (156) ideal gas (156) ideal gas constant (156)
partial pressure (Pn) (161) Dalton’s law of partial pressures (162) mole fraction (xa) (162) hypoxia (163) oxygen toxicity (164) nitrogen narcosis (164) vapour pressure (165)
Section 5.5
Section 5.8
molar volume (158) standard temperature and pressure (STP) (158)
kinetic molecular theory (170)
Section 5.2 millimetre of mercury (mmHg) (147) barometer (147) torr (147) pascal (Pa) (147) atmosphere (atm) (147) standard pressure (148) bar (148) millibar (mbar) (148) manometer (148)
Section 5.4
Section 5.10 van der Waals equation (180) real gas (180)
In reactions involving gaseous reactants and products, quantities are often reported in volumes at specified pressures and temperatures. We can convert these quantities to amounts (in moles) using the ideal gas law. Then we can use the stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced equation to determine the stoichiometric amounts of other reactants or
▲ The Key Concepts section summarizes the chapter’s most important ideas. M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 183
1/12/13 1:51 AM
Key Skills
▲ Key Terms list all of the chapter’s boldfaced terms, organized by section in order of appearance, with page references. Definitions are found in the Glossary.
Calculating Internal Energy from Heat and Work (6.3) • Example 6.1
• For Practice 6.1
• Exercises 41–44, 53–54
Finding Heat from Temperature Changes (6.4) • Example 6.2
• For Practice 6.2
• For More Practice 6.2
• Exercises 47–48
Thermal Energy Transfer (6.4) • Example 6.3
• For Practice 6.3
• Exercises 49–50, 63–68
Finding Work from Volume Changes (6.4) • Example 6.4
Key Equations and Relationships
• Example 6.5
Relationship Between Pressure (P ), Force (F ), and Area ( A ) (5.2) P =
• Example 6.6
• Exercises 51–52
• For Practice 6.6
• Examples 6.7, 6.13
• For More Practice 6.5
• Exercises 71–72
• Exercises 57–58
• For Practice 6.7, 6.13
• For More Practice 6.7
• Exercises 59–62
Finding Δ r H Using Calorimetry (6.7) • Example 6.8
Charles’s Law: Relationship Between Volume (V ) and Temperature (T ) (5.3) V ∝ T (in K)
• For Practice 6.8
• Exercises 73–74
Finding Δ r H Using Hess’s Law (6.8)
V1 V2 = T1 T2
• Example 6.9
• For Practice 6.9
• For More Practice 6.9
• Exercises 77–80
Finding Δ r H Using Standard Enthalpies of Formation (6.9)
n) (5.3)
• Examples 6.10, 6.11, 6.12
V ∝ n V2 V1 = n1 n2 Ideal Gas Law: Relationship Between Volume (V ), Pressure (P ), Temperature (T ), and Amount (n) (5.4) PV = nRT
▲ The Key Equations and Relationships section lists each of the key equations and important quantitative relationships from the chapter.
• For Practice 6.5
Determining Heat from ?H and Stoichiometry (6.6)
1 V ∝ P P1V1 = P2V2
M05_TRO1785_00_SE_C05.indd 183
• For More Practice 6.4
Predicting Endothermic and Exothermic Processes (6.6)
F A
Boyle’s Law: Relationship Between Pressure (P ) and Volume (V ) (5.3)
Avogadro’s Law: Relationship Between Volume (V
• For Practice 6.4
Using Bomb Calorimetry to Calculate Δ rU (6.5)
• Exercises 83–90
▲ The Key Skills section lists the major types of problems that you should be able to solve, with the chapter examples that show the techniques needed—along with the “For Practice” problems and end-of-chapter exercises that offer practice in those skills.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 228 1/12/13 1:51 AM
• For Practice 6.10, 6.11, 6.12
1/16/13 10:07 AM
xxviii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxviii
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Problems by Topic Energy Units
End-of-Chapter Review Exercises
33. Perform each conversion between energy units: a. 534 kWh to J c. 567 Cal to J b. 215 kJ to Cal d. 2.85 * 103 J to cal
Answers to odd-numbered questions in Appendix III
34. Perform each conversion between energy units: a. 231 cal to kJ c. 4.99 * 103 kJ to kWh b. 132 * 104 kJ to kcal d. 2.88 * 104 J to Cal 35. Suppose that a person eats a diet of 2387 Calories per day. Convert this energy into each unit: a. J b. kJ c. kWh
18. What is pressure-volume work? How is it calculated?
2. What is energy? What is work? Give some examples of each.
19. What is calorimetry? Explain the difference between a coffeecup calorimeter and a bomb calorimeter. What is each designed to measure?
3. What is kinetic energy? What is potential energy? Give some examples of each. 4. What is the law of conservation of energy? How does it relate to energy exchanges between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings? 5. What is the SI unit of energy? List some other common units of energy. 6. What is the first law of thermodynamics? What are its implications? 7. A friend claims to have constructed a machine that creates electricity, but requires no energy input. Explain why you should be
37. Which statement is true of the internal energy of a system and its surroundings during an energy exchange with a negative ΔUsys? a. The internal energy of the system increases and the internal energy of the surroundings decreases.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 229
1/16/13 10:07 AM
20. What is the change in enthalpy (ΔH) for a chemical reaction? How is ΔH different from ΔU ? 21. Explain the difference between an exothermic and an endothermic reaction. Give the sign of ΔH for each type of reaction. 22. From a molecular viewpoint, where does the energy emitted in an exothermic chemical reaction come from? Why does the reaction mixture undergo an increase in temperature even though energy is emitted? 23. From a molecular viewpoint, where does the energy absorbed i d h i h i l i h d h i
▲ Review Questions can be used to review chapter content.
Challenge Problems 120. A typical frostless refrigerator uses 655 kWh of energy per year in the form of electricity. Suppose that all of this electricity is generated at a power plant that burns coal containing 3.2% sulfur by mass and that all of the sulfur is emitted as SO2 when the coal is burned. If all of the SO2 goes on to react with rainwater to form H2SO4, what mass of H2SO4 does the annual operation of the refrigerator produce? (Hint: Assume that the remaining percentage of the coal is carbon, and begin by calculating Δ r H ° for the combustion of carbon.)
Cumulative Problems 95. The kinetic energy of a rolling billiard ball is given by KE = 1√2 mv 2. Suppose a 0.17 kg billiard ball is rolling down a pool table with an initial speed of 4.5 m s-1. As it travels, it loses some of its energy as heat. The ball slows down to 3.8 m s-1 and then collides head-on with a second billiard ball of equal mass. The first billiard ball completely stops and the second one rolls away with a velocity of 3.8 m s-1. Assume the first billiard ball is the system and calculate w, q, and ΔU for the process. 96. A 100 W light bulb is placed in a cylinder equipped with a movable piston. The light bulb is turned on for 0.015 hour, and the assembly expands from an initial volume of 0.85 L to a final volume of 5.88 L against an external pressure of 1.0 atm. Use the wattage of the light bulb and the time it is on to calculate ΔU in joules (assume that the cylinder and light bulb assembly is the system and assume two significant figures). Calculate w and q.
Internal Energy, Heat, and Work
▲ Problems by Topic are paired, with answers to the odd-numbered questions appearing in the appendix.
Review Questions 1. What is thermochemistry? Why is it important?
36. A particular frost-free refrigerator uses about 745 kWh of electrical energy per year. Express this amount of energy in each unit: a. J b. kJ c. Cal
121. A large sport utility vehicle has a mass of 2.5 * 103 kg . Calculate the mass of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere upon accelerating the SUV from 0.0 mph to 65.0 mph. Assume that the required energy comes from the combustion of octane with 30% efficiency. (Hint: Use KE = 1> 2 mv 2 to calculate the kinetic energy required for the acceleration.)
◀ When carbon dioxide sublimes, the gaseous CO2 is cold enough to cause water vapour in the air to condense, forming fog.
▲ Cumulative Problems combine material from different parts of the chapter, and often from previous chapters as well, allowing you to see how well you can integrate the course material.
122. Combustion of natural gas (primarily methane) occurs in most household heaters. The heat given off in this reaction is used to raise the temperature of the air in the house. Assuming that all the energy given off in the reaction goes to heating up only the air in the house, determine the mass of methane required to heat the air in a house by 10.0 °C. Assume the following: house
dimensions are 30.0 m * 30.0 m * 3.0 m; molar heat capacity of air is 30 J K - 1 mol - 1; and 1.00 mol of air occupies 22.7 L for all temperatures concerned. 123. When backpacking in the wilderness, hikers often boil water to sterilize it for drinking. Suppose that you are planning a backpacking trip and will need to boil 35 L of water for your group. What volume of fuel should you bring? Assume the following: the fuel has an average formula of C7H16; 15% of the heat generated from combustion goes to heating the water (the rest is lost to the surroundings); the density of the fuel is 0.78 g mL-1; the initial temperature of the water is 25.0 °C; and the standard enthalpy of formation of C7H16 is -224.4 kJ mol-1. 124. An ice cube of mass 9.0 g is added to a cup of coffee. The coffee’s initial temperature is 90.0 °C and the cup contains 120.0 g of liquid. Assume that the specific heat capacity of the coffee is the same as that of water. The heat of fusion of ice (the heat associated with ice melting) is 6.0 kJ mol-1. Find the temperature of the coffee after the ice melts. 125. The optimum drinking temperature for a Shiraz is 15.0 °C. A certain bottle of Shiraz having a heat capacity of 3.40 kJ °C - 1 is 23.1 °C at room temperature. The heat of fusion of ice is
▲ Challenge Problems are designed to challenge stronger students.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 234
1/16/13 10:07 AM
Conceptual Problems 133. Which statement is true of the internal energy of the system and its surroundings following a process in which ΔUsys = + 65 kJ? Explain. a. The system and the surroundings both lose 65 kJ of energy. b. The system and the surroundings both gain 65 kJ of energy. M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 229 c. The system loses 65 kJ of energy and the surroundings gain 65 kJ of energy. d. The system gains 65 kJ of energy and the surroundings lose 65 kJ of energy. 134. The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. Which statement is true of an isothermal (constanttemperature) expansion of an ideal gas against a constant external pressure? Explain. a. ΔU is positive c. q is positive b. w is positive d. ΔU is negative 135. Which expression describes the heat evolved in a chemical reaction when the reaction is carried out at constant pressure? Explain. a. ΔU - w b. ΔU c. ΔU - q 136. Two identical refrigerators are plugged in for the first time. Refrigerator A is empty (except for air) and refrigerator B is filled with jugs of water. The compressors of both refrigerators immediately turn on and begin cooling the interiors of the refrigerators. After two hours, the compressor of refrigerator A turns off, while the compressor of refrigerator B continues to run. The next day, the compressor of refrigerator A can be
heard turning on and off every few minutes, while the compressor of refrigerator B turns off and on every hour or so (and stays on longer each time). Explain these observations. 137. A 1 kg cylinder of aluminum and 1 kg jug of water, both at room temperature, are put into a refrigerator. After 1/16/13 one hour, 10:07 AM the temperature of each object is measured. One of the objects is much cooler than the other. Which one is cooler and why? 138. Two substances A and B, initially at different temperatures, are thermally isolated from their surroundings and allowed to come into thermal contact. The mass of substance A is twice the mass of substance B, but the specific heat capacity of substance B is four times the specific heat capacity of substance A. Which substance will undergo a larger change in temperature? 139. When 1 mol of a gas burns at constant pressure, it produces 2418 J of heat and does 5 J of work. Identify Δ rU , Δ r H , q, and w for the process. 140. In an exothermic reaction, the reactants lose energy and the reaction feels hot to the touch. Explain why the reaction feels hot even though the reactants are losing energy. Where does the energy come from? 141. Which statement is true of a reaction in which ΔV is positive? Explain. a. ΔH = ΔU c. ΔH 6 ΔU b. ΔH 7 ΔU
▲ Conceptual Problems let you test your grasp of key chapter concepts, often through reasoning that involves little or no math.
M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 233
1/16/13 10:07 AM
xxix M06_TRO1785_00_SE_C06.indd 235
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxix
1/16/13 10:08 AM
1/26/13 1:18 AM
MasteringChemistry® tutorials guide students through the most challenging topics while helping them make connections between related chemical concepts. Immediate feedback and tutorial assistance help students understand and master concepts and skills in chemistry—allowing them to retain more knowledge and perform better in this course and beyond.
MasteringChemistry® is the only system to provide instantaneous feedback specific to the most common wrong answers. Students can submit an answer and receive immediate, error-specific feedback. Simpler sub-problems— hints—are provided upon request.
Math Remediation links found in selected tutorials launch algorithmically generated math exercises that give students unlimited opportunity for practice and mastery of math skills. Math Remediation exercises provide additional practice and free up class and office-hour time to focus on the chemistry. Exercises include guided solutions, sample problems, and learning aids for extra help, and offer helpful feedback when students enter incorrect answers.
xxx
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxx
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printer text, and include powerful interactive and customization functions. • You can create notes, highlight text in different colors, create book marks, zoom, click hyperlinked words and phrases to view definitions, and view in single-page or twopage view. • You can perform a full-text search and have the ability to save and export notes. • Instructors can share their notes and highlights with students and can also hide chapters that they do not want their students to read.
NEW! 15 Pause and Predict Video Quizzes ask students to predict the outcome of experiments and demonstrations as they watch the videos; a set of multiple-choice questions challenges students to apply the concepts from the video to related scenarios. These videos are also available in web and mobile-friendly formats through the Study Area of MasteringChemistry and in the Pearson eText.
NEW! 15 Simulations, assignable in MasteringChemistry®, include those developed by the PhET Chemistry Group, and the leading authors in the simulation development covering some of the most difficult chemistry concepts.
xxxi
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxxi
1/26/13 1:18 AM
The Mastering platform was developed by scientists for science students and instructors. Mastering has been refined from data-driven insights derived from over a decade of real-world use by faculty and students. NEW! Calendar Features The Course Home default page now features a Calendar View displaying upcoming assignments and due dates. • Instructors can schedule assignments by dragging and dropping the assignment onto a date in the calendar. If the due date of an assignment needs to change, instructors can drag the assignment to the new due date and change the “available from and to dates” accordingly. • The calendar view gives students a syllabus-style overview of due dates, making it easy to see all assignments due in a given month. Gradebook Every assignment is automatically graded. Shades of red highlight struggling students and challenging assignments. Gradebook Diagnostics This screen provides you with your favorite diagnostics. With a single click, charts summarize the most difficult problems, vulnerable students, grade distribution, and even score improvement over the course.
NEW! Learning Outcomes Let Mastering do the work in tracking student performance against your learning outcomes: • Add your own or use the publisher provided learning outcomes. • View class performance against the specified learning outcomes. • Export results to a spreadsheet that you can further customize and share with your chair, dean, administrator, or accreditation board.
xxxiiii
A01_TRO5213_01_SE_FM.indd xxxii
1/26/13 1:18 AM
Autor: Nivaldo J. Tro
Publisher: Pearson
ISBN: 0133926222
File Size: 17,25 MB
Format: PDF, Kindle
Read: 2421
Publisher: Pearson
ISBN: 0133926222
File Size: 17,25 MB
Format: PDF, Kindle
Read: 2421
![Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd edition download for windows 10 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd edition download for windows 10](/uploads/1/2/5/2/125299172/750323745.jpg)
Sorry, this document isn't available for viewing at this time. How to get bittorrent to download torrent links. In the meantime, you can download the document by clicking the 'Download' button above.
![Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd edition download full Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd edition download full](/uploads/1/2/5/2/125299172/121055634.jpg)